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Bio 2 - Unit 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the force of evolution that is the source of all new alleles in a given population?

A

Mutation

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2
Q

What is the force of evolution that is the main force behind adaptation?

A

Natural Selection

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3
Q

What is the force of evolution that can both lower and increase gene diversity?

A

Gene Flow

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4
Q

What is the force of evolution that randomly decreases the gene pool (usually via natural disasters)?

A

Genetic Drift

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5
Q

What is the force of evolution that facilitates secondary sexual characteristics and nonrandom mating?

A

Sexual Selection

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6
Q

What is convergent evolution?

A

Convergent evolution is the selection of adaptations in an environment. Natural selection favors certain adaptions, so those adaptions will appear in multiple species that may not be related.

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7
Q

What is an ancestral similarity?

A

It is a similarity between species that is from the most recent common ancestor of that group/clade. Present in the common ancestor itself.

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8
Q

What is a derived similarity?

A

A similarity between species that is exclusive to a select few of a group/clade. Common ancestor may or may not have this characteristic.

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9
Q

What is polarization?

A

The decision whether some character states are ancestral or derived.

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10
Q

What is an outgroup?

A

An outgroup is a species closely related to the group in study (but not a part of that group).

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11
Q

What is outgroup comparison?

A

If the outgroup chosen has similar characters to the group in study, then the character is ancestral and vice versa.

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12
Q

What is a clade?

A

A group with a common ancestor and ALL of its descendants.

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13
Q

What other term can be used to describe a clade..?

A

A monophyletic group.

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14
Q

What is homoplasy?

A

A derived characteristic resulting from convergent evolution or evolutionary reversal. Not present in the common ancestor.

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15
Q

What is the acronym for all 8 taxa?

A

Did King Phillip Come Out For Good Socks?

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16
Q

What are all 8 taxa?

A

Domain
Kingdom
Phyla
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

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17
Q

How does the PSC/LSC constitute a species?

A

Species are groups of populations evolutionary independent from other groups. Lineages are species.

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18
Q

What are the 3 types of phyletic groups?

A

Monophyletic
Paraphyletic
Polyphyletic

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19
Q

What is homology?

A

Passing of a structure from a common ancestor to its descendants.

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20
Q

Homology vs. Homoplasy

A

Homology results in homologous structures in a descendant of an ancestor.
Homoplasy results in analogous structures in different species (likely from convergent evolution).

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21
Q

What is a monophyletic group?

A

A group of a common ancestor and all descendants. AKA clade.

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22
Q

What is a paraphyletic group?

A

A group of a common ancestor, and some descendants.

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23
Q

What is a polyphyletic group?

A

Does not include a common ancestor. Some species are grouped together based on traits. Species may be far apart on the phylogenetic tree.

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24
Q

What is the basic structure of viruses?

A

A DNA/RNA genome encased in a protein capsid.

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25
Q

What are naked viruses?

A

Viruses without an outer lipid envelope.

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26
Q

2 basic shapes of viruses:

A

Helical - rod like
Icosahedral - geometrical, roundish, like the dice.

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27
Q

What are the two reproductive cycles of viruses?

A

Lytic and Lysogenic

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28
Q

Processes of Lytic Cycle

A

Attachment, Entry, Replication, Assembly, Release

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29
Q

Process of Lysogenic Cycle

A

Virus enters, inserts its genome, cell replicates genome and infection starts.

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30
Q

Prophage is:

A

Inserted genome from virus during Lysogenic cycle.

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31
Q

Lysogens are:

A

Infected cells during Lysogenic Cycle.

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32
Q

What is a temperate phage?

A

A phage that can enter both reproductive cycles.

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33
Q

What are viroids?

A

Naked strands of RNA. Tends to infect plants.

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34
Q

What are prions?

A

Infectious strains of proteins.

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35
Q

What types of viruses (genetic) infect animals, plants, and bacteria?

A

Animals are infected with both RNA and DNA strands of viruses.
Plants are infected with RNA based viruses.
Bacteria are infected with DNA based viruses AKA bacteriophages.

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36
Q

Bacteriophage

A

A virus that exclusively infects bacteria with a head-tail morphology.

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37
Q

What is sexual dimorphism?

A

The differences in males and females of a species.

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38
Q

What is the relation of size in prokaryotes compared to eukaryotes?

A

Prokaryotes are much smaller.

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39
Q

True or False: prokaryotes have membrane bound organelles.

A

False

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40
Q

Which prokaryotes (Archaea/Bacteria) have ether linkages in their PM?

A

Archaea

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41
Q

Which prokaryotes (Archaea/Bacteria) have ester linkages in their PM?

A

Bacteria

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42
Q

What are the purpose of cell walls in bacteria?

A

To prevent bursting of the cell.

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43
Q

Archaea lack _____ in their cell walls. They instead have _____ in their cell walls.

A

Peptidoglycan; Pseudomurein

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44
Q

What is an S-layer? Which domain is it universal in and why?

A

An extra protein layer outside of the membranes. Universal in Archaea to help them survive extreme environments.

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45
Q

What are capsules? What are slime layers?

A

Capsules are gelatinous layers surrounding other cell wall layers. Slime layers are capsules that are harder to detect.

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46
Q

What are endospores?

A

Almost like a state of being where bacteria enter when environment is too harsh. They are nearly indestructible.

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47
Q

3 types of horizontal gene transfers.

A

Conjugation (cell contact)
Transduction (virus injection)
Transformation (plasmids from environment)

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48
Q

What are the 3 main shapes of bacteria?

A

Bacili, Cocci, Spirilis

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49
Q

What is the extra shape of bacteria not of the main 3?

A

Virbrios - comma shaped or beans

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50
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer?

A

The spreading of genetic material across multiple species or cells of prokaryotes.

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51
Q

What do bacteria do during nitrogen fixation?

A

They convert atmospheric N2 to NH3. Ammonia is an easier form of nitrogen to use for many organisms. N2 has a tough triple covalent bond to break.

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52
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

The engulfment of pathogens by phagocytes (good) leading to pathogens’ death.

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53
Q

What is the human microbiome?

A

The collective population of bacteria in a human.

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54
Q

Bioremediation is:

A

The usage of prokaryotes to lessen pollution.

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55
Q

Assortative Mating is:
Positive assortative mating is:
Negative assortative mating is:

A

Assortative mating is the nonrandom mating based on phenotypes.
Positive AM is choosing mates based on similar phenotypes (relative to chooser).
Negative AM is choosing mates based on different phenotypes (relative to chooser).

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56
Q

Intrasexual selection is:

A

The competition between, usually, males. Males will fight to assert dominance.

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57
Q

Intersexual selection is:

A

The ‘choosiness’ of females towards male mates.

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58
Q

What leads to intersexual selection?

A

The parental investment of females is greater than males.

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59
Q

What is stabilizing, directional, and diversifying/disruptive selection?

A

Stabilizing - the selection for intermediate phenotypes.
Directional - the selection for one phenotype or the other.
Diversifying - the selection for two extreme ends of a phenotype.

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60
Q

What is negative frequency dependent selection?

A

The selection FOR individuals with outlier phenotypes. These individuals will be ignored by predators looking for the common phenotype.

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61
Q

What is positive frequency dependent selection?

A

The selection AGAINST individuals with outlier phenotypes. These individuals will be picked off because they stand out.

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62
Q

Negative frequency dependent selection leads to…

A

More genetic variation.

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63
Q

Positive frequency dependent selection leads to…

A

Less genetic variation.

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64
Q

Biological Species Concept states a species is a species because…

A

Populations that interbreed and produce viable offspring and species.

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65
Q

Prezygotic and postzygotic barriers are things that influence the BSC because…

A

They prevent the inbreeding of certain populations which leads to the classification of different species.

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66
Q

Allopatric Speciation is…

A

The differentiation of populations due to geographic isolation.

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67
Q

Sympatric Speciation is…

A

The differentiation of individuals in a population in the same area. Same place speciation due to allopolyploidy or autopolyploidy.

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68
Q

Fusion of species is a result of what?

A

The result of gene flow countering speciation. Fusion of species is due to incomplete reproductive isolation barriers.

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69
Q

What are reservoir species?

A

The natural hosts of a virus that do not contract symptoms of said virus.

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70
Q

What are viral vectors?

A

Spreaders of a virus (usually bugs).

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71
Q

What are the enzootic cycles and epizootic cycles of disease?

A

Enzootic - the regularly active disease which affects organisms in a place or season.
Epizootic - the temporarily prevalent and widespread disease.

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72
Q

Pili in bacteria are similar to ___ in protists.

A

Cilia

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73
Q

What is bacterial mucilage?

A

Sticky secretion of bacterial cells. Used for biofilms to adhere colonies.

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74
Q

What are some defining traits of Gram Positive Bacteria?

A

Stained purple, high amounts of peptidoglycan in cell walls, vulnerable to penicillin.

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75
Q

What are some defining traits of Gram Negative Bacteria?

A

Stained pink, low amounts of peptidoglycan in cell walls, resistant to penicillin, presence of lipopolysaccharides in cell walls.

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76
Q

Cyanobacteria are:

A

Photosynthetic bacteria that are diverse in their multicellular structure.

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77
Q

Proteobacteria are:

A

Heterotrophic Bacteria.

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78
Q

What are saprotrophs?

A

Organisms that secrete enzymes into the environment to digest food. Typically decomposers.

79
Q

Which two processes do antibiotics stop to kill bacteria?

A

Stop protein synthesis -> death.
Stop cell wall formation -> death.

80
Q

Which unique lipids make up Archaean cell walls?

A

Lipopolysaccharides.

81
Q

What are the 3 types of Archaea?

A

Methanogens - absorb inorganic molecules. Produce methane.
Thermoacidophiles - archaeans that live in extremely hot, acidic environments.
Halophiles - arachaeans that live in high salt concentrations.

82
Q

Pathogens produce _____?

A

Toxins

83
Q

What are toxins?

A

Organic molecules released on death of a bacteria/prokaryote that is harmful to a host.

84
Q

Chemoautotrophic bacteria…

A

Reduce Co2 without sunlight for food.

85
Q

Chemoheterotrophic bacteria…

A

Absorb organic molecules for food. Similar to animals.

86
Q

Archaea is similar to which domain?

A

Eukarya (via methionine and TATA box)

87
Q

Viruses cannot reproduce without a…

A

Host.

88
Q

What two taxa are used for binomial nomenclature (scientific naming)?

A

Genus, species.

89
Q

Reinforcement is the result of…

A

Selection against intermediates and hybrids. Results in diversifying selection. Leads to stronger reproductive isolation barriers.

90
Q

Stabilizing selection leads to…

A

More hybrids as hybrids can survive. Leads to stabilization in populations.

91
Q

The endosymbiosis theory suggests…
(mention 4 organelles and where they came from)…

A

Mitochondria came from the engulfment of aerobic bacteria and chloroplasts came from the engulfment of cyanobacteria. Nuclear membranes and endoplasmic reticulum originated from the infoldings of the plasma membrane of eukarya.

92
Q

List 6 supergroups of protists.

A

Excavata
Chromalveolata
Archaeplastida
Rhizaria
Opisthokonta
Amoebozoa

93
Q

Which groups have flagellates?

A

Excavata
Opisthokonta
Some Archaeplastidians
Chromalveolata

94
Q

Which 3 organelles do protists use for locomotion?

A

Flagella, Cillia, Pseudopods

95
Q

Alveolates, Stramenopila, and Rhizaria make up the ___ classification.

A

SAR

96
Q

Holomycota are:

A

Opisthokonta that are similar to fungi.

97
Q

Holozoa are:

A

Opisthokonta that are similar to animals.

98
Q

Plankton is a classification of protists by…

A

Whether or not protists can swim or float in water.

99
Q

Animal - like plankton are:

A

Protozoan Plankton

100
Q

Plant - like plankton are:

A

Phytoplankton

101
Q

Periphyton is a classification of protists by…

A

Whether or not protists are attached to underwater surfaces with mucilage.

102
Q

Amoebae protists move around by using what?

A

Pseudopods

103
Q

Do all protists have a common ancestor?

A

No.

104
Q

True or False:
Protists are a paraphyletic group.
Why?

A

True
Protists are a paraphyletic group because some protists are related to plants/animals.

105
Q

Protists are from the domain:

A

Eukarya

106
Q

What are endosymbiotic bacteria?

A

Bacteria that live inside hosts and provide benefits

107
Q

Why is fungal mitosis (along with some protists) different from plants or animals?

A

Nuclear membrane does not dissolve. ‘Closed Mitosis’

108
Q

All protists other than amoebas have the what?

A

ECM - extracellular matrix.

109
Q

Are protists autotrophic or heterotrophic or both?

A

Both
Additionally, both autotrophic and heterotrophic tendencies are classified as a mixotroph.

110
Q

What is budding as an asexual form of reproduction?

A

Parent splits itself, daughter piece grows into a parent sized organism.

111
Q

What is schizogony as an asexual form of reproduction?

A

Parent performs many nuclear divisions, then cytokinesis = many daughters.

112
Q

What are the two monophyletic clades of the Supergroup Excavata?

A

Diplomonads + Parabasalids
Euglenozoa

113
Q

Diplomonads and Parabasalids are unique for their:
(1 characteristic - locomotion)

A

Multiple flagella

114
Q

Euglenozoa are unique for their:
(2 characteristics - flagella and locomotion)

A

Unique flagella and shape changes during swims

115
Q

Parabasalids are unique for their:
(1 characteristic - locomotion)

A

Undulating membranes

116
Q

Diatoms (unicellular, photosynthetic shelled protists) and oomycetes (parasitic/saprophytic protists) and brown algae are part of which of the 6 protist supergroups?

A

Chromalveolata - stramenopila specifically.

117
Q

Dinoflagellates (which cause red tides), Ampicomplexans (Plasmodium transmits malaria), and Ciliates (which move around using cilia) are part of which protist supergroup?

A

Chromalveolata - alveolates specifically.

118
Q

Ciliates have rows and spirals of what connected to their plasma membrane?

A

Rows and spirals of cilia.

119
Q

All ciliates have 2 nuclei that are called what?

A

The micronucleus and macronucleus.

120
Q

What are ampicomplexans named for?

A

Their apical complexes that help invade hosts.

121
Q

Which alveolate spins with 2 flagella?

A

Dinoflagellates

122
Q

Which alveolate is a parasite?

A

Ampicomplexans

123
Q

Plasmodium belongs to which SAR group?

A

Alveolates

124
Q

Which 3 groups comprise the Rhizaria supergroup?

A

Radiolarans, Forams, Cercozoans

125
Q

Chlorophytes and Charophytes are part of which protist supergroup?

A

Archaeplastida

126
Q

Charophytes are the ancestor of what?

A

All land plants

127
Q

Rhodophyta is part of the Archaeplastida supergroup and is what? (___ algae)

A

Red algae

128
Q

Choanoflagellates are part of which protist supergroup?

A

Opisthokonta

129
Q

Choanoflagellates are the common ancestor of which two groups of organisms?

A

Sponges and all animals

130
Q

Which supergroup do fungi belong to?

A

Opisthokonta

131
Q

What are 3 characteristics animals and fungi have in common?

A

1) Heterotrophism
2) Absorptive nutrition
3) Excess food stored as glycogen

132
Q

What molecule is uniquely present in fungal cell walls?

A

Chitin

133
Q

Chitin causes fungal cells to have 2 additional properties:

A

1) Increased rigidity (and as a result, inability to engulf food)
2) Decreased movement

134
Q

What is a mycelium?

A

A mass network of hyphae.

135
Q

What are hyphae?

A

Tube like filaments of a fungi body

136
Q

What are mushrooms?

A

The fruiting bodies of a mycelium.

137
Q

What is the difference between septate fungi and aseptate fungi?

A

Septate fungi have cell walls separating individual cells in the hyphae strands, while aseptate fungi does not.

138
Q

As a result of the lack of cell walls dividing the cells of aseptate hyphae, it is said to be coenocytic. What does this mean?

A

It means the hyphae is an open cavity and multinucleate.

139
Q

Fungi growing through a liquid medium are what shape?

A

Spherical

140
Q

Fungi growing on an agar medium is what shape?

A

Flat and circular

141
Q

True or False: Fungi can only reproduce by asexual reproduction.

A

False. They do both

142
Q

Know the names of the 7 phyla of Fungi.

A

Chtridiomycota
Cryptomycota
Microsporidia
Zygomycota
Glomeromycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota

143
Q

Glomeromycota is also known as AM fungi. Why is this?

A

Its ability to form arbuscular mycorrhizae.

144
Q

Cryptomycota fungi is known for its lack of ____ in its cell walls.

A

Chitin

145
Q

Microsporidia are:

A

Unicellular parasites.

146
Q

Aseptate or septate:
Zygomycota

A

Aseptate

147
Q

Aseptate or septate:
Glomeromycota

A

Aseptate

148
Q

Aseptate or septate:
Ascomycota

A

Septate

149
Q

Aseptate or septate:
Basidiomycota

A

Septate

150
Q

Yeast and truffles are examples of which of the 7 fungal phyla?

A

Ascomycetes

151
Q

This fungal phyla is named for its unique reproductive structures: ascus, ascospores.

A

Ascomycota

152
Q

Basidiomycota is mainly known for its ability to produce what? (It’s edible)

A

Wide variety of mushroom fruiting bodies (called basidiocarps)

153
Q

Fungi and bacteria are important ____ in ecosystems.

A

Decomposers

154
Q

Ringworm is a…

A

Fungal infection

155
Q

Dimorphic fungi can transform from what to what?

A

Hyphae to yeast

156
Q

How do dimorphic fungi transform?

A

Entering a host body and exposure to body temperature.

157
Q

What are the 3 symbiotic associations of fungi?

A

1) Mycorrhizae
2) Lichens
3) Endophytes

158
Q

What is mycorrhizae an association of?

A

Plant roots and fungi

159
Q

What are endophytes an association of?

A

Plant leaves or stems and fungi

160
Q

What are lichens an association of?

A

Photosynthetic organisms and fungi

161
Q

Endomycorrhizae is another name for… (Hint: Glomerocytes)

A

Arbuscular mycorrhizae

162
Q

How does arbuscular mycorrhizae work?

A

Fungi penetrates cell walls and grows under cell walls and on top of plasma membrane.

163
Q

How does ectomycorrhizae work?

A

Fungi does not penetrate cell walls and instead grows around root cells.

164
Q

What benefit do endophytes give to plants?

A

Endophytes give plants toxins or pathogen protection to increase plant survival.

165
Q

What is the trend among fungal associations? (what is the popular relationship)

A

Fungi gives minerals and water and receives food in return.

166
Q

What are the 3 types of lichens? Describe.

A

1) Crustose - crusty films of lichen
2) Foliose - leaf like pieces of lichen. Flowy
3) Fruticose - branch, shrub like.

167
Q

Lichens cannot grow which way?

A

Vertically (except fruticose, slightly)

168
Q

Chytridiomycota is exclusively _____ (multicellular/unicellular). (Hint: it’s an ancient phyla).

A

Unicellular

169
Q

Unicellular forms of fungi are known as…
Multicellular…

A

Yeasts; myceliums

170
Q

True or False:
Fungi are saprotrophs.

A

True

171
Q

Why do fungi have such rapid growth?

A

High surface area to volume ratio.

172
Q

Why is fungal mitosis considered closed?

A

Nuclear membrane does not dissolve.

173
Q

Monokaryotic hyphae is defined as:

A

Hyphae cells with one nucleus

174
Q

Dikaryotic hyphae is defined as:

A

Hyphae cells with 2 nuclei

175
Q

Heterokaryotic hyphae is defined as:

A

Hyphae cells with multiple nuclei from 2 genetically distinct organisms.

176
Q

Hyphae cells have (diploid/haploid) cells separated or unseparated by septa.

A

Haploid

177
Q

Fungi can decompose any _____ containing compound.

A

Carbon

178
Q

What 2 compounds of plants can fungi exclusively decompose?

A

Cellulose and lignin

179
Q

Obligate symbiosis is:

A

Relationships that are mandatory for the fungi’s survival.

180
Q

Faculative symbiosis is:

A

Relationships that are optional for the fungi’s survival. Removal of relationship reduces growth rate.

181
Q

Which fungal phyla is the primary partner of lichens?

A

Ascomycota

182
Q

What is a thallus?

A

Main body of lichens

183
Q

Why are lichens usually the first colonizers of new land?

A

Autotropic properties of the photosynthetic partner combined with the durability of fungi = ability to grow almost anywhere with food.

184
Q

How does mycorrhizae affect the soil?

A

Increases stability and reduces soil erosion.

185
Q

A nonphotosynthetic plant in a 3 partner mycorrhizae is what?

A

Epiparasite

186
Q

What are mycotoxins?

A

Toxins inside fungal fruiting bodies.

187
Q

Basidiomycota and Ascomycota comprise a group:
Why?

A

Dikarya
Presence of a dikaryon stage in both phyla. Basidiomycota have a long dikaryon stage; Ascomycota have a short dikaryon stage.

188
Q

Two compatible mating types of fungi come in contact and fuse. What process just happened?

A

Plasmogamy

189
Q

Primary and secondary mycelium are characterized by…

A

Monokaryotic hyphae (primary)
Dikaryotic hyphae (secondary)

190
Q

Basidiomycete dikaryotic hyphae grow into what?

A

Basidiocarps

191
Q

Karyogamy is…

A

The fusion of 2 nuclei.

192
Q

Glomeromycota are (obligate/faculative)

A

Obligate

193
Q

Members of Chytridiomycota have a common organelle for locomotion.

A

Flagella

194
Q

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A

biology (2 decks)

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