Imperalism Challenged Flashcards
What was the economic impact of ww1 on Brtitain?
Ww1 was economically exhausting for Britain. As well as costing the lives of almost a million Britons and 200,000 soldiers from across the Empire, the war was extremely expensive, requiring the whole economy to be placed on a war footing. Huge amounts of public finances were directed towards the war effort, leaving Britain in severe debt
-Much of Britain’s capital investment overseas has been wiped out
-The pound sterling had to be removed from the gold standard for the duration, because gold reserves ran so low
What was the gold standard like after the war?
Since it’s foundation in 1694 the Bank of England had issued notes promising to pay the bearer a sum of money. For much of its history the promise could be made good by the Bank paying out gold in exchange for it’s notes. The link with gold helped to maintain the value of the notes and its suspension of this ‘gold standard’ in wartime was considered a measure of last resort
What was the impact of ww1 on Britain’s industries?
-It had severe consequences for some of Britain’s most important export industries. Production for the war was prioritised over making goods for export to traditional overseas markets, and this meant that Britain’s competitors were able to win markets traditionally dominated by British exports
-Nit all of these overseas markets were won back after ww1. Britain’s traditional industries, such as textiles, shipbuilding, coal, iron and steel, which created income to pay for running and defending the empire, experienced great difficulties between the wars as they faced new overseas competition, for example from the Japanese in textile production
What happened with Britain’s financial sector after ww1?
-The banks and financial institutions, which generated profits from lending money overseas were suffering. The result was that the economic burden of the Empire grew, as Britain’s ability to pay for it diminished
-This problem was intensified in the 1930s by the Great Depression, which saw a collapse of international trade and markets for British industrial exports. A financial crisis in 1931 forced the country off the gold standard again
-This in turn reduced earnings from overseas investments. However, the Empire offered economic compensations as well as problems
What was the economic impact of Ww1 on India?
-India contributed almost £146 million to the war effort, and the country experienced inflation and shortages during the war as a result. War, however, also brought longer term changes which were not entirely damaging.
-In 1914 two thirds of India’s imports came from Britain, but this started to fall- initially because of wartime disruption to trade, but in the longer term because of the growing strength of foreign competition. India’s own economy partly benefited from this; Indian manufacturers began to capture more of the domestic market
-After the war, desperate for revenue to help bolster their control in the face of the rising nationalist movement, the British placed high taxes on Indian imports, rising from 11% in 1917 to 25% in 1931
-The effect was to give Indian Industry protection against its competitors, and it grew accordingly
What was the economic impact of ww1 on Canada?
-Canada benefited from the war, emerging as an industrial power. As in India, British manufacturers lost ground here
-Indeed, increasingly Canada looked to its southern neighbour, the USA, for investment and markets as the inter war period progressed
What was the economic impact of ww1 on Australia and New Zealand?
Australia and New Zealand, as exporters of food, relied heavily on the British market, and consequently were hit hard by the disruption of trade caused by the war
What were the two distinct phases British policy towards imperial trade went through in the inter war period?
-In the 1920s, Britain tried to recreate the economic system which had existed before 1914. Thus Britain returned to the gold standard in 1925, in order to stabilise its international trade. One exception to this policy was the colonial development act of 1929, which provided treasury funds to support colonial development projects
-In the aftermath of the Great Depression a much greater emphasis was placed on the importance of the Empire for British commerce and imports from the Empire increased. Britain was again forced to abandon the gold standard in 1931 but trade with the Empire in sterling proved a great asset
What happened with British exports between the wars?
-Exports to the Empire included a wide variety of commodities, but historically cotton textiles had always figured prominently, especially to the markets of Asia and India. Significantly, in the inter war period, these began to fall as tough competition from Japan and other emerging industrial economies began to be encountered
-Nonetheless, at least until the 1930s, the Empire remained important for cotton textile exports, as it did for a range of other industrial products at a time of tough competition, particularly from the USA
-As world trade shrank, imperialists, such as Lord Beaverbrook, the newspaper magnate, again argued for a return of the idea of ‘imperial prefernce’, ending Britain’s historic policy of free trade
-This met with opposition from the Dominions which wished to protect their own growing industries and eventually a compromise was reached at the Ottawa conference of 1932
What was agreed at the Ottawa conference of 1932?
-The British introduced a general 10% tex on all imports but the Crown colonies were exempted
-Britain and the dominions gave each other’s exports preferential treatment in their own markets
This reinforced the important role of the Empire in supplying foodstuffs and raw materials to Britain. The following tables convey the importance of the Empire as a source of crucial imports between 1913 and 1934
Was Imperial trade uniform?
-Imperial trade was not uniform- certain parts of the Empire increased their commercial links more than others. The dominions became both an increasingly important market for British exports and a more significant supplier of imports
-However, while India largely remained an important supplier of tea and jute, and grew in importance in supplying raw cotton, it absorbed fewer British exports, as key Indian and Asian markets such as cotton textiles were won first by the Japanese and subsequently by emerging Indian cotton textile producers
What was the value of imperial trade and commerce?
-Some dominions, particularly Australia and New Zealand, experienced serious economic problems in the inter war period. The cost of their imports from Britain outstripped the income from their exports.
-Both countries ran up debts with Britain although, as the smaller country, developing more slowly than its neighbour, New Zealand suffered less than Australia
-Imperial preference became especially important for these countries when international trade turned down sharply in the 1930s
-Other British colonies in Asia and Africa also suffered as a result of the collapse of world trade in the 1930s
-Burma and Malaya were especially hard hit. Malaya relied on exports of tin and rubber; Burma on exports of rice
-African colonies too, which produced food or raw materials, saw tumbling prices in the 1930s
-Incomes fell bringing poverty and even starvation and fuelling dissatisfaction with colonial rule
What was the value of imperial trade and commerce for Empire?
-Some dominions, particularly Australia and New Zealand, experienced serious economic problems in the inter war period. The cost of their imports from Britain outstripped the income from their exports. Both countries ran up debts with Britain although, as the smaller country, developing more slowly than its neighbour, New Zealand suffered less than Australia
-Imperial prefernce became especially important for these countries when international trade turned down sharply in the 1930s
-Other British colonies in Asia and Africa also suffered as a result of the collapse of world trade in the 1930s
-Burma and Malaya were especially hard hit. Malaya relied on exports of tin and rubber; Burma on exports of rice
-African colonies too, which produced food or raw materials, saw tumbling prices in the 1930s. Incomes fell bringing poverty and even starvation and fuelling dissatisfaction with colonial rule
What was the economic impact of the Second World War?
-The Second World War hit Britain even harder than the first. The British economy, Whig had to be geared entirely to war in the years 1939 to 1945, entered the war in a far weaker condition than it had done in 1914 and major defeats in the West and East and Southeast Asia in the first 3 years of war proved cripplingly expensive
-Ww2 had a severe and dramatic impact upon British trade
How did ww2 have a severe impact on British trade?
-German U boat attacks on British sea traffic were devastating especially in the early years of the war. Overall Britain lost 11.7 million tons of shipping in the war, or about 54% of the country’s merchant fleet strength at the beginning of the war
-The loss of major colonies in Southeast Asia to the Japanese from 1942 disrupted trade and cut off supplies of vital raw materials such as rubber from Malaya
-The diversion of industrial production to producing weapons of war meant that less was produced for export. The British tried to reduce imports, by campaigns to increase home production and food rationing, but Britain’s balance of trade was heavily in deficit during the war
-A third of Britain’s overseas assets (investments in businesses) were sold to pay for the war. Britain borrowed from the USA from 1941 in the form of Lend-lease, and emerged from thr war in massive debts
-Britain increased its dependence on Empire for imports. There was considerable investment by colonial government, for example in Africa, to help increase the supply of foodstuffs and raw materials
-Colonial reserves held in Britain (the so called ‘sterling balances’) were used to help Britain pay for the war effort
How was Britain’s post war position made worse?
-Britain’s post war position was made worse when, in late August 1945, the USA ended lend-lease, largely because it was not prepared to support a revived British empire financially
-John Maynard Keynes negotiated a massive US loan (approx £900 million) in 1945, but the conditions were tough; the pound sterling had to be made freely convertible to dollars by the spring of 1947
What was the sterling crisis of spring 1947?
-Free convertibility would require the Bank of England to be able to exchange sterling for dollars, at a fixed rate. The US dollar loan was supposed to enable Britain to build sufficient reserves to do this by 1947
-However, Britain almost ran out of its dollar reserves within 6 weeks (largely because of imperial demands) and had to suspend free convertibility. It revealed how weak the British economy had become
What did Britain face after ww2?
-Britain faced a dilemma. The costs of re establishing its world power, which had been challenged by the wartime Japanese occupation in the East and emergent nationalism in countries such as India, threatened to exceed the potential economic or political benefits
-Consequently a dual approach emerged. Where the costs of controlling a colony massively outstripped its imperial control was abandoned. However, where colonies were regarded as of economic benefit to Britain, a new emphasis was placed on colonial economic development
-The rubber and tin industry of Malaya which could command major international markets, for example, received heavy government investment since it was hoped that this would earn large amounts of foreign currency (especially dollars) and benefit Britain’s international trading position
What did the colonial development and welfar act of 1940 do?
It formed the foundation for the new approach after ww2. This:
-Wrote off some colonial debts
-Provided colonial grants or loans up to £5 million per year
A further colonial development and welfare act of 1945:
-Increased the aid available to colonies to £120 million over 10 years
-Required each colony to produce a ten year development plan showing how it would use such funds
What were Gandhi’s campaigns?
-He campaigned against racism and segregation, championing the civil rights of Indians who had settled in the area and challenging both the British, and from 1910, the dominant Afrikaners (the descendants of the Boers)
-In 1915, he returned to India, where he became president of the Indian National Congress and began to immerse himself in political affairs. He travelled the country, supporting popular protests against British rule, wearing Indian dress as a symbol of his commitment to Indian culture and industry
-In 1917 to 1918 he championed the downtrodden indigo workers of the state of Bihar, and mediated in a textile industry dispute in Ahmedabad as well as a dispute over land taxes in Gujarat
-However, it was only after the 1919 Amritsar massacare that his national campaigns for full Indian independence began
What were Gandhi’s campaigns after the Amritsar massacare in 1919?
-He helped organise the non co-operation movement of 1920, the civil disobedience movement of 1930-31 and 1932-34 and the Quit India movement of 1942
-He was clear about the importance of political non violence, but vague about his goals (other than his desire to remove the British so that India could control its own future development)
-He was imprisoned by the British on several occasions, including almost 2 years during ww2
-Although his goal of independence was achieved in 1947, he strongly opposed the partition of India and offended some Hindu and Muslim nationalists who felt his attitude was too moderate and idealistic
-He was assasinated in 1948 by a militant Hindu nationalist who accused him of showing a bias for Muslims
What were Gandhi’s beliefs?
-In accordance with his strong Hindu religious convictions, Gandhi favoured peaceful resistance to British rule, based on the principles of satyagraha
-Gandhi preached harmonious relations between Hindus and Muslims, arguing that tolerance between the 2 communities should be cemented with equal rights for both religions in an independent India. Gandhi rejected divisions among Hindus based on the caste system. In particular he argued fiercely against discrimination against ‘untouchables’ (the Dalit community), and campaigned for equality for all
-Gandhi wanted an independent India which built on its spiritual and social traditions. He wanted India to remain predominantly agricultural and rural, and to reject the industrialisation and urbanisation which characterised western development
What was Gandhi’s importance?
-Gandhi’s reputation was as a moral as well as a political leader. He reconciled Western ideas about democracy with the notion of a distinctive Indian culture and national identity, based on the principles of Hinduism, religious tolerance and a vision of a traditional rural India
-This offered the benefits of Western liberalism without endangering the character of Indian society and values
-His methods made it difficult for the British to respond. The British liked to see themselves as a liberal, peaceful, democratic and fair minded people, committed to the well being of the colonial peoples they ruled
-Non violent resistance proved effective in hurting British economic interests; in response the British used violent repression to break up demonstrations and imprison nationalist leaders
-This was embarrassing for the British internationally, as it demonstrated that imperial rule ultimately rested not on peaceful and benign methods, but on the exercise of ruthless might
What was the role of colonial administrators?
-Colonial administrators faced a tough job both in the years of war and in the difficult inter war period. They were charged to collect taxes and maintain stability and order in the face of growing nationalist movements seeking, at least, more representation, or, as in the case of India, full independence from colonial rule
How did administration respond to the changed circumstances at both imperial and colonial levels?
-In 1925 the colonial office was split into 2 departments; the dominions office, with its own Secretary of State, and the colonial office itself
-This meant that three cabinet members were responsible to parliament for the good governance of the commonwealth and empire: the Secretary of State for the colonies, the Secretary of State for India and the Secretary of State for the dominions
What were beneath the 3 Secretaries of State across empire?
-Beneath the 3 Secretaries of State were the permanent officials at Whitehall, and below them, spreading across the empire, the administrative services which backed up and exercised imperial power.
-The dominions recruited and appointed their own civil services, but the British crown still continued to appoint the governor generals
-However, after the statute of Westminster of 1931 when the dominions became autonomous, the Governor General in the dominions ceased to be an imperial official and instead became merely the representative of the crown
What happened to the colonial services in 1930?
-The colonial services were unified in 1930, so that individuals were no longer appointed directly to Individual colonial governments.
-The quality of recruits generally improved, particularly in Africa, where the future of colonial government looked assured. The bulk of administrators continued to be recruited from similar, if not the same, public schools and the traditional universities
-Pay varied enormously. The Governor of Nigeria in 1922, for example could expect a salary of £8250 per annum, whereas a cadet starting work in Kenya earned approx. £200 per annum.
-The colonial office appointments handbook spoke of the qualities looked for: single mindedness and purpose
-Administrators were expected to be honest, responsible and industrious, but in practice they could also be smug and narrow minded, even if the white racial attitudes that had characterised nineteenth century administrators had been somewhat softened by the 1920s and 1930s
-Lord Lugard of Nigeria was in no doubt as to the quality of these administrators, claiming in 1922 that the public schools ‘have produced English gentlemen with an almost passionate conception of playing the game’
What did changes in imperial administration reflect?
-Changes in imperial administration reflected, in part, the developing idea that colonial administration in those areas of the empire considered less developed, principally in Africa, should be a form of ‘trusteeship’; administrators were there to protect the interests of indigenous populations, foster the colony’s economic growth and ‘nurture’ it towards greater self rule, that nonetheless remained far out of sight from the British viewpoint
-In 1927 a white paper written by the colonial secretary, Leo Amery, argued in favour of ‘trusteeship’ with colonists and promoting their interests and a Royal commission under Sir Edward Hilton Young in 1929 ruled out self government and federation in East Africa in favour of a policy of ‘trusteeship’
-In 1931 Lord passfield went a step further and argued in favour of a ‘dual mandate’ to reconcile African interests
What did colonial development schemes usually mean?
-Colonial development schemes usually meant bringing young and ambitious western educated indigenous elites into positions of authority- whether as clerks, managers civil servants or members of representative institutions
-These urbanised, westernised middle classes often formed the pool from which anti colonial nationalist leaders were drawn as independence movements gained momentum after the second world war
Who were the more prominent administrators in India between 1914 and 1947?
-Edwin Montagu
-Sir Harry Haig
-Lord Linlithgow
Who was Edwin Montagu?
-He was a Secretary of State for India from 1917 to 1922. Together with Lord Chelmsford, who served as viceroy of India from 1916 to 1921, he was responsible for reforms which led to the government of India act of 1919, which gave Indians a limited degree of political representation and control of some aspects of affairs within India itself, subject to the over riding authority of the British
Who was Sir Harry Haig?
-He was a lifelong colonial administrator in India, following his appointment as a member of the viceroy’s executive council in 1932
-Haig was, in many ways, an example of an emergent colonial administrator who was coming to terms with the idea, albeit reluctantly, of Indians as partners in empire
-He was, however, an opponent of Gandhi’s campaign for Indian independence, describing Gandhi as a ‘menace’
Who was Lord Linlithgow?
-He served as viceroy of India from 1935 to 1943. His 7 year tenure was the longest in the history of the Raj, during which he promoted the further enfranchisement of Indians in the government of India act of 1935
-He believed that further reform would weaken the more radical elements of nationalism and give rise to ‘more responsible’ Indian politicians, who would see the wisdom of working with the British towards the longer term goal of self government
-His appeal for unity on the outbreak of the Second World War brought a promise of greater rights in the governance of India for the Indian people; but this was rejected by most Indian politicians
-He was an implacable opponent of Gandhi and ordered the Indian civil disobedience campaign to be suppressed
-While he was praised in Britain, Indians blamed him for the division and lack of economic development in their country, and his reluctance to press Britain for aid during the 1943 Bengal famine, which killed up to 3 million people
Who were other influential administrators?
-Sir Donald Cameron
-William Hailey
-Sir Philip Mitchell
-Sir Charles Arden Clarke
-Sir Andrew Cohen
-Sir Ralph Furse
Who was Sir Donald Cameron?
-He was, unusually for someone who rose high in colonial service, the son of a sugar planter from British Guiana, who did not attend university, but began his career as a clerk at the inland revenue.
-His career took him from the post of assistant colonial secretary in Mauritius and southern Nigeria to chief secretary, governor of Tanganyika and governor of Nigeria
-His advancement came partly as a result of his close contacts with Lord Lugard, whom he greatly admired, and he is a good example of an administrator who believed in the ‘trusteeship’ principle
-In Nigeria, he promoted exports of ground nuts and palm oil oil and in Tanganyika, the building of harbours and railways
-He sought to advance the colonies economically and supported the entry of indigenous peoples into the civil service but he favoured a gradual path to more self rule
Who was William Hailey?
He was a typical public school/ Oxford administrator who had a long career in the civil service of the Raj
-He was a key participant in the conferences leading to the 1935 government of India act and officially retired in 1936. However, he travelled over 20,000 miles for the royal institute of international affairs to produce ‘an African survey’ in 1938 which was so comprehensive that it proved a highly influential study for future British policy, even after the Second World War
Who was Sir Philip Mitchell?
He was another typical administrator of the inter war years. After St Paul’s school and Oxford his first posting was in Nyasaland in 1912. He subsequently served in Tanganyika becoming secretary of native affairs there and chief secretary.
-From here he went to Uganda where he fulfilled the ‘trusteeship principle’ by extending Makerere college and working to create a more educated African elite
-His next posting was as governor of Fiji but in 1944 he returned to Africa as governor of Kenyan
Who was Charles Arden Clarke?
-His career was typical of that of many who rose to prominence in colonial service
-He was born to a missionary family in India, educated at the Rossall school (where colonial service was promoted) and entered colonial service in 1920
-He served as a district officer in Northern Nigeria and as resident commissioner in Lagos in 1937 and Basutoland, 1942
-He went to Sarawak in 1946, eventually moving to the Gold Coast after the war and presiding over the first British African colony to gain independence in 1957
Who was Sir Andrew Cohen?
-He was another public school/Oxbrigde administrator whose interests were in Africa, although he served in Malta during the second world war
-He had considerable sympathy for the plight of the indigenous African peoples and was one of the earliest to understand the need for decolonisation
-He cultivated contacts with African nationalists and when appointed assistant under Secretary of State for the colonial office in 1947, found himself in a position to influence steps towards greater independence
Who was Sir Ralph Furse?
-He was not an administrator himself, but he was responsible for improving the recruitment and training of administrators. He was responsible for the 1930 reform of appointments to colonial service and became the director of recruitment in a new personnel division in 1931
-His reforms helped establish a standard system of recruitment and training and have led to his being called the ‘father of the modern colonial service’
-By the time of his retirement in 1948, he had considerably improved the quality of those in colonial service
How did the government promote empire?
-Through mass communication and social organisation, the British population was bombarded by imperial imagery, much of it officially supported by the British government, who were keen to encourage trade with the Empire
-The Empire marketing board, set up in 1926 following the efforts of Leo Amery, the Secretary of State for colonies and dominions, promoted the consumption in Britain of items produced in the empire through posters and advertising campaigns
-The board became even more active in the 1930s, when, following the onset of the Great Depression, international trade declined drastically and the empire became even more important to the British economy. It’s iconic imagery was often racist and chauvinist in tone and content, positioning Britain and Britons at the top of racial and social hierarchies, and as responsible for the economic and moral ‘improvement’ of the colonies
How were exhibitions a way of government promotion of empire?
-Exhibitions were staged, such as the Wembley exhibition of 1924 to which the British government contributed half of the £2.2 million cost. A 0.3 square mile site was purchased at Wembley, North London, and on its pavilions advertising every country in the Empire and a fun fair erected
-There was also a sports stadium, which became the permanent legacy of the exhibition. The exhibition was intended to give visitors an experience of the British Empire ‘in miniature’.
-Peoples from around the Empire were also displayed in ‘ethnic villages’ designed to recreate the ‘traditional’ lives and crafts of pre colonial peoples
-Over 17 million visitors attended in 1924 and another 9 million in 1925, its final year. Another empire exhibition in Glasgow in 1938 also proved to be a great success, attracting 12 million and offering a chance to boost the Scottish economy after the depression
How did the BBC promote empire?
-The bbc, established in 1923, under its first director general, John Reith, took a strong pro imperial stance and covered as many major imperial events, exhibitions and public celebrations as possible
-In particular there were Christmas broadcasts from 1932 which included not only the kings speech, but also various items about the empire
How was the Empire promoted in education?
-The Empire also maintained an important presence in education. It formed a focal point for the teaching of geography, history and literature in schools, drawing for the last on the poetry and writing of such pro imperial writers as Rudyard Kipling
-The historical study of empire became established in universities, with special professorships in imperial history being created such as the vere harmsworth chair at Cambridge
-The universities played an especially important part in training colonial servants, as exemplified by the role of London’s university’s school of oriental and African studies, founded in 1917
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How was Empire promoted in literature and film?
-Official and institutional sources of imperial awareness were surpassed by popular culture representations of empire in literature and film. Children’s literature in particular celebrated empire and the books of G.A Henty remained popular
-The emergence of the cinema as mass entertainment was another source of imperial culture. Such feature films as Sanders of the river and the flour feathers used the empire as an exotic backdrop for adventure, signalling to the public that the Empire was a place of excitement and the playing out of stories of adventure and bravery
How was empire promoted in music?
-Some composers continued to vaunt the imperial theme. At the 1924 empire exhibition, the composer Edward Elgar conducted mass choirs in the singing of ‘Land hope and glory’ and a new eight song ‘Pageant of Empire’ and ‘Empire March’ were performed
-This, however, marked the end of his prolific career as a composer of imperial music. Elgar died in 1934. Noel Coward’s 1931 song, ‘Mad dogs and Englishmen’, may have adopted an imperial note, but it was more gently self mocking of British ideas about themselves and empire
How did commercial advertising promote empire?
-Commercial advertising from private companies had long used imperial motifs to promote products, and it continued to so in the years between 1914 and 1947
-Large traders within the Empire such as the co-operative wholesale society celebrated their global and imperial links in their advertising, especially in the CWS’s supply of such products as tea, with packets containing collectible cards illustrating places in Empire
How else was empire promoted?
-There was also informal links which people had in their everyday lives; relatives who had emigrated to Australia or elsewhere;former missionaries who spoke in church about their experiences in the empire, or relatives who had served in the army or navy, bringing them into direct contact with the empire
-These also played a part in disseminating both knowledge and fantasy of the British empire
Where were the representations of empire?
-Between 1914 and 1947, changes in the mass media increased the ways in which empire could be represented to people in Britain; through films and the BBC, for example
-There were also some changes in the messages conveyed as explicit jingoism lost its attraction after the horrors of the First World War
-The empire was presented in Britain more as a family of nations led by the British: a place of peace and co operation, but with firmly paternalistic overtones
-White British administrators continued to be portrayed as beneficiary and superior, and non European cultures as ‘primitive’ or ‘exotic’
