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Semester 2 > A&P Exam #2 > Flashcards

A&P Exam #2 Flashcards

1
Q

How are blood flow, resistance, and pressure related? What is the equation?

A

F= delta P, F=1/R, F= delta P/R

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2
Q

How does exercise change blood flow to specific tissues?

A

SKM= arterioles dilate (metabolic)=Less BP → extrinsic SNS increases→ BV constriction → Decrease BV to guts/ kidneys

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3
Q

Elastic arteries

A

-near heart→aorta And branches
-Pressure reservoir, expand and recoil

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4
Q

Muscular Arteries

A

-Deliver O2 to organs→ distribution
-thickest tunica media= vasoconstriction

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5
Q

Arterioles

A

-Regulate blood flow, most resistant
-Can constrict or dilate from hormones, neural cues, and chemicals

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6
Q

Continues Capillaries

A

least permeable (tight junction), most common: skin, CNS, muscles

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7
Q

Fenestrated Capillaries

A

filtration, absorption(intestines), large pores= greater permeability

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8
Q

Sinusoid Capillary

A

most permeable: liver, marrow, spleen, medulla, v. large pores

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9
Q

Precapillary Sphincter

A

Regulates flow in and out of capillaries

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10
Q

Venules

A

leaky capillaries

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11
Q

Veins Details

A

-65% of blood volume= blood resevoir
-valves= prevent backflow of blood (tunica intima=sl valves)
Venous sinuses

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12
Q

Varicose Veins

A

-Leaky valves
-from genetic, obesity, pregnancy, and hormones

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13
Q

Tunica Intimina

A

-simple squamous
-inner most layer
-Elastic membrane

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14
Q

Tunica Media

A

-Circular smooth muscle
-Elastic membrane
-Controlled by SNS, hormones, chemical,= vasodialation or vasoconstriction

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15
Q

Tunica Externa

A

-layer
-Loose collagen= anchor and protect
-Has elastic fibers,nerves, vaso vasorum

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16
Q

How does Blood flow

A

areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure

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17
Q

Blood Flow (F)

A

Volume of blood per minute

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18
Q

Blood Pressure

A

-Force Exerted on Vessel wall by flowing blood
-pressure gradient is a force that keeps blood moving

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19
Q

Blood Resistance (TPR)

A

-caused by viscosity
-vessel length
-BV diameter

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20
Q

What happens when LV Contracts (Arterial Pressure)

A

-blood stretches aorta
-systolic BP= 120 mmHg
-high pressure from blood in arteries

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21
Q

What happens when LV Relaxes?

A

-caused by aortic SL valve closing
-aorta wall recoils= keeps blood flowing
-Diastolic BP= 80mmHg

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22
Q

How doe elastic arteries keep blood flowing?

A

auxillary pumps

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23
Q

What is Pulse Pressure

A

Systolic-diastolic= 40mmHg

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24
Q

MAP Formula

A

MAP=DBP+ pulse pressure (PP)/3

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25
Q

What decreases as you move away from the heart?

A

Pulse pressure, MAP, and elastic recoil

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26
Q

Blood Pressure in Capillaries

A

35-17 mmHg

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27
Q

What happens when the capillary pressure is to great

A

-capillary walls are fragile and permeable
-greater pressure creates too much filtration

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28
Q

Venous BP

A

17-10mmHg

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29
Q

What helps veins bring blood back towards the heart?

A

-muscular pump
-Respiratory pump
-SNS Venoconstriction

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30
Q

Muscular Pump

A

muscle contracts and moves blood

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31
Q

Respiratory Pump

A

-inhale= air into lungs and blood into heart

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32
Q

SNS Vasoconstriction

A

-decrease vol. of blood in the venous system
-increase heart flow to the heart

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33
Q

What does increase Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) do?

A

-increased resistance from increased constriction and thus afterload
-increased Cardiac Output= increased stroke volume and HR and SNS

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34
Q

What are the 2 ways Blood pressure is controlled?

A
  1. Short Term= Neural and Hormonal
    2.Long term= renal
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35
Q

What happens if MAP decreases?

A

1.stretch decreases
2. decrease firing of CN 9 & 10= increase SNS & decreased SNS
3. Increase Stroke Volume
4. Increase Contractility
5. Increase Heart Rate
6. Increase Venous Constriction= more blood return
7. Increase arteriole constriction

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36
Q

What brings MAP to set point?

A

-increase CO
-Increase Resistance

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37
Q

Baroreceptors

A

-Found: internal carotid sinus and aortic arch
1. Sends signals of stretch to cardio inhibitory center (solitary nucleus)
2. Sends back PSNS Response
-Less HR
-Less contractility
3. Send Signals back SNS
-Cardiac Center
-To sympathetic trunk ganglia→ more heart rate,more contractillity
-Vasocconstrict blood vessels
Tells kidneys (RAAS)

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38
Q

Hypertension

A

When baroreceptors acclimate to high bp

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39
Q

What happens to increase MAP

A

-turns of SNS
-decrease HR
-decrease contractility
-dilate aerials= decrease resistance
-dilates veins for quick venous returns

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40
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

-see if there is low O2, low Ph, or to much CO2
-Increases HR and release of CO2
-Increases vasoconstriction
-Increases resistance= greater MAP

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41
Q

2 Types of short Term Hormone Control of BP

A
  1. paracrine
    2.Endocrine
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42
Q

What do short term paracrine hormone do?

A

-match blood flow to metabolic needs of tissue

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43
Q

What are the short term Endocrine hormones?

A

1.NE & Epinephrine
2.Angiotension II
3.Antidiretic Hormone
4. Atrial natriuretic peptide

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44
Q

NE & Epinephrine

A

-increase HR and vasoconstriction= greater CO
-adrenal

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45
Q

Angiotension II

A

-vasoconstriction= increase BP
-kidneys

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46
Q

Antidiretic Hormone

A

-Retain H2o= increase Blood vol. And rate
-pituitary

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47
Q

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide

A

= decrease BP and volume
-heart

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48
Q

Long-term Blood Pressure Control (renal)

A

-Kidney controls BV
-Directly filters and reabsorbs water
-Indirectly via hormones

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49
Q

What does perfusion do?

A

-necessary for delivering O2/nutrients
-remove CO2 and waste

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50
Q

Extrinsic Factors that regulate tissue perfusion

A

-Outside organs
-SNS→constriction→less BF and maintains BP (hormones can effect)

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51
Q

Intrinsic Factors that Regulate Tissue Perfusion

A

1.Autoregulation
2.metabolic Factors
3.Endothelial Factors
4.Inflamatory Chemicals
5. Myogenic Control

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52
Q

Autoregulation (Intrinsic Factor)

A

-perfusion matched to tissue requirements
-Local conditions change in arterial resistance (diameter)

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53
Q

Metabolic Intrinsic Factor

A

-Decrease in O2, increase K, increase H = decrease pH→ vasodilation

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54
Q

Endothelial Intrinsic Factor

A

2 Things must be in balance:
A. Nitric Oxide
-Powerful vasodilator
B. Endothelians
-vasoconstrictor

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55
Q

Inflammatory Chemicals (intrinsic Factor)

A

Chemicals cause Vasodilation of BV’s

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56
Q

Myogenic Controls (intrinsic Factor)

A

-SM stretched= contracts= less BF
-SM relaxed= increase BF= maintain BF when dialated

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57
Q

How does exercise change blood flow to specific tissues?

A

-SKM= arterioles dilate (metabolic)
-Less BP → extrinsic SNS increases→ BV constriction → Decrease BV to guts/ kidneys
-Organs:
BRAIN- same
heart= increase (BV dilate)
sKm= increase ( increase more to slow
skin = increase(vasodilation to release heat)
kidneys= decrease (SNS)
Abdomen= decrease (SNS)
other= decrease (SNS)

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58
Q

Describe Capillary Exchange

A

-Blood brings O2, nutrients, removes CO2 and water
1. Solutes:
-diffusion= net mvmt hi → low→ co2, O2, fat, glucose, ions, ect.
-Active Transport= transcytoses of select lg. -Molecules (proteins)
2. Water: (bulk flow)
-Hydrostatic P.= pressure exerted by fluid on wall
-Push h2o out, Leaves proteins and cells= filtration
-Coloid Osmotic P
-Created by proteins and large molecules
-Pulls water in

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59
Q

Arterial End Pressure Details

A

-Hydrosti P= 35 mmHg
-Coloid Osmotic P= -25 mmHg (negative= moving in opposite direction)
-Net filtration P= H-C= NF
-NF=10 mmHg= water benign pushed out

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60
Q

Venule End Pressure Details

A

-HP= 17 mm HG
-COP= -25 mm HG
-NFP= - 88 mm Hg

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61
Q

What are the processes of digestion?

A
  1. Ingestion-taking it in
    2.Mechanical Breakdown= chewing
    3.Propulsion=swallowing and peristalsis
    4.Digestion= catabolic enzyme breaks food down
    5.Absorption=end products –>blood or lymph
    6.Defecation=eliminate indigestible substances
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62
Q

Digestive Processes of Oral Cavity

A

1.Ingestion
2. Mechanical Breakdown
- mastication
- tongue mixing
-control voluntary and stretch receptors
3.Chemical Digestion
-salivary amylase
- lingual lipase
4. propulsion (deglutition)
-tongue compacts bolus and goes into oropharynx
- nasopharynx blocked by soft palate
-larynx rises, epiglottis covers glottis, and breathing stops
-upper esophagus relaxes
- bolus moved by peristalsis contractions (8 sec.)
-

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63
Q

Esophagus Histology

A

-Stratified squamous epithelium
-Muscular Externa→skeletal→smooth muscle

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64
Q

Esophagus Role

A

moves food

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65
Q

Esophagus Digestive Process

A
  1. Propulsion-
    - moves food from oral cavity in the stomach
    - Lubrication from glands in submucosa
  2. Gastroesophageal Sphincter:
    -Open when contracts
    3.Pyloric Sphincter
    -Controls stomach emptying into duodenum
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66
Q

Layers of the Stomach Layers top to bottom

A
  1. Fundus
  2. Body
    3.Cardia
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67
Q

Chemical Portion of Stomach Digestion

A

From Gastric Glands:
1.Parietal Cells
2.Chief Cells
3.Enteroendocrine Cells

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68
Q

Parietal Cells in Stomach

A

-pumps H+ into lumen
-H+ joins with calcium and HCL
-HCL= 1.35-3.5
-HCL denatures proteins, kills bacteria, activates pepsin
-intrinsic factor and regulates b12 absorption

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69
Q

Chief Cells in Stomach

A
  • lipase
    -15% lipolysis
    -pepsinogen activated to pepsin by HCL
    -protease –> cleave protons into polypeptides
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70
Q

Endocrine Cells in Stomach

A

-release gastrin
-increase stomach activity

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71
Q

Digestive Process

A

1.Chyme-
-partially digested carbs, proteins and fats
-In 2-3 hours in pylons
2.Empty w/in 4-6 hours
-Faster=larger meals, liquids, carbs
-Slower=fatty

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72
Q

Histology of the Small Intestines

A
  1. Circular Lumen
  2. Villi
  3. Microvilli
  4. Intestinal Crypts
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73
Q

Circular Folds (Small Intestines)

A

-1 cm tall and focus chyme to spiral thru. Lumen

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74
Q

Villi (Small Intestines)

A

-1mm projections of mucosa
-Enterocytes→ absorbs nutrients
-Goblet Cells: Secrete Mucus and in epithelial layer

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75
Q

Microvilli (small Intestines)

A

-Plasma membranes projections= brush border

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76
Q

Intestinal Crypt Types (small Intestines)

A

1.Enterocytes
2. Enteroendocrine cells
3. Paneth Cells
4. Stem Cells

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77
Q

Enterocytes(small intestines)

A

Secrete intestinal juices, watery mucos
1-2 L a day
pH: 7.5

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78
Q

Enteroendocrine Cells(small intestines)

A

-cholecystokinin (CEK) secretion

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79
Q

Paneth Cells(small intestines)

A

Secrete defensins, lysozyme

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80
Q

Stem Cells(small intestines)

A

-Divide rapidly, differentiat, and migrate to willis

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81
Q

What causes gastric ulcers?

A

-Stomach normally protected by a bicarbonate and mucus blanket
-If mucus is broken down→ digest wall is exposed
-H. Pylori can destroy mucus layer

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82
Q

Gastric Ulcer Treatment

A
  1. antacids → raise pH and allow time for healing
  2. Proton Pump–>Inhibits parietal cells from pumping H+
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83
Q

How does vomiting occur?

A

-AKA Emesis
-Irritation→ message to emeteric center in medulla
Pale, nauseated, salivate,
-Process:
Deep breath
contracting abdominal and diaphragm
GES Relaxes
Soft Palate rises
Stomach content forced up

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84
Q

Mechanical Digestion of Small Intestines

A

-Propulsion
-segmentation

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85
Q

Chemical Digestion of Small Intestines

A

-Chyme broken down
-enzyme=Pancreas and bush border
- bile from liver

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86
Q

Absorption Digestion in Small Intestines

A

-absorbs most nutrient sand water

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87
Q

How long does small intestine digestion take?

A

3-6 hours

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88
Q

Ileocecal Valve

A

-of small intestines
-Sphincter→flap
-Closes with pressure
-Prevents backflow
-Normally closed
-Relaxed by gastrolienal reflex

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89
Q

What happens if Chyme is acidic or hypertonic when entering the small intestines?

A

Acidic- normally
Hypertonic- diahrea

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90
Q

bacteria in Large Intestines Details

A

1.Lots of goblet cells
- Crypts, no villi
2. Bacteria ⅓ of stool
3.Metabolic Rate
-Fermentation- breakdown undigested food and mucosa
-carbs= gas(CO2, Methane, Hydrogen, Dimethylsulfide [odor]
-500ml/ day
-makes vitamins
-B’s and K
-Keeps bad bacteria in check
-maintains Overall health

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91
Q

Describe haustra contractions and mass movement in Small Intestines

A

*takes 12-24 hours
1.Haustra Contractions
-Segmentation
-Slow 1-30min
-SM
-As haustra fills and stretch then contract and mixes contents
-Allows for more H2O extraction
-Mass Movement
2. Peristalsis
-Long, slow, powerful → force contents towards rectum
-3-4 times a day
-Gastrolic reflex= food in stomach
3. Absorption
-500ml chyme → 150 ml feces

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92
Q

Pre-defication

A
  1. Mass movement→ feces into rectum
    2.Feces stretches wall= defecation reflex (PSNS)
    3.Rectum contracts; in response and the internal sphincter relaxes
  2. Message to the brain→ decide what to do with the external sphincter
    5.Keep external sphincter closed until mass movement
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93
Q

Defecation

A

1.Rectal wall contracts
2.Contract levator ani
-Lifts anal canal and leave feces outside the body

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94
Q

Metabolic Functions of the Liver

A

-Process nutrients
-Stores glucose as glycogen
-Amino acids→ makes plasma proteins, Clotting factors, albumin, angiokensiogen
-store fat soluable vitamins
-Makes cholesteral and triglyceriddes

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95
Q

Detoxification Function of the Liver

A

-Makes molecules inactive→ changes to H2O soluble form
- changes Ammonia →urea
-Drugs and hormones

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96
Q

What does the liver filter

A

blood= old RBC and bacteria

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97
Q

How does the liver aid in digestion

A

makes bile salts

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98
Q

Bile Salts

A

Emulsifies Fats

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99
Q

How is Bile Recycled?

A

Enterohepatic Circulation:
1. Duodenum
2.Reabs, in ileum
3. Transported to liver by portal blood
4.Re-secreted bile

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100
Q

Bile Qualities

A

-yellow/green
-alkaline

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101
Q

What does bile Contain?

A

1.Bile Salts
2.Bile Pigments
3.Cholesteral/Triglycerides

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102
Q

Bile Pigmentation

A

-from Bilubrin= Hb breakdown

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103
Q

Gall Bladder

A

-Stores bile in concentration of 20x
-when walls contract–>bile moves into cystic duct
-

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104
Q

Gall Stones

A

-too much cholesterol or to little bile salts

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105
Q

Pancreatic Digestive Process

A

-secretes 1500 ml of pancreatic Juice (mostly water)
-Bicarbonate (pH8) is made by duct cells
-Bicarbonate:
-neutralizes chyme
-HCL–>HCO3=blood pH unchanged
-Enzymes made by Acinar Cells

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106
Q

Active form of Enzymes made by Acinar Cells

A

Trypsin becomes lipase, amylase, and nuclease, but need ions and bile to function properly

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107
Q

Inactive form of Enzymes made by Acinar Cells

A

-Trypsinogen–>trypsin in duodenum

108
Q

Main Steps of Digestion Control

A

1.Cephalic Phase
2.Gastic Phase
3.Intestinal Phase

109
Q

Cephalic Phase of digestion Steps

A
  1. Sense(see, smell, taste)
    2.message goes to cortex
    3.message to hypothalamus
    4.Message to medulla
    5.Message from medulla activates PSNS
    6.PSNS activation sends an excitatory impulse through the vagus nerve (AKA long reflex)
110
Q

Gastric Phase of Digestion

A

(AKA short reflex)
* increase distending and pH b/c of chyme and body senses peptides (starts the process)
1.Gastrin is released–> relaxes ileocecal calve (gastroileal reflex) & mass movement (gastrocolic reflex)

111
Q

Intestinal Phase of Digestion

A
  • chyme in duodenum (acidic, causes distension, hypertonic)
    Fat and Peptides of Chyme is Digested:
    -cholecystokinin is released
    1.tells gallbladder to contract (digests fat)
    2. Pancreas Secretes Enzyme (digests proteins)
    3. Relax Hepatic Sphincter (bile gets to chyme)
    4.Inhibits stomach activity

Acidity of Chyme in Digestion Causes:
1.activates secretin release
2.release of bicarbonate from the pancreatic duct cells
3. Increase bile production
4.Inhibits stomach activity

112
Q

Chyme qualities

A

-made of peptides and fat
-hypertonic
-acidic

113
Q

What Inhibits the Stomach Digestion and why?

A

1.Cholecystokinin and Seretin
-protects small intestines from acid
-allows time for digestion and absorption (food would move way to fast)
2. Stress, Fear, and Anxiety
-SNS Response

114
Q

Catabolic Process in Digestion

A

-large molecules become monomers via hydrolysis and are also broken down with pancreatic enzymes

115
Q

How does absorption occur in digestion?

A

-enterocytes have tight junctions so things don’t easily come through
-molecules are picked up by ATPase carriers and brought through

116
Q

List Polysaccharides

A

-glycogen, starch, and cellulose

117
Q

How do Polysaccharides (carbs) turn into disaccharides

A

-Salivary and pancreatic amylase

118
Q

What are some disaccharides?

A

-sucrose
-lactose
-maltose

119
Q

How do disaccharides b/cm monosaccharides?

A

-via brush border enzyme

120
Q

How are Monosaccharides absorbed?

A

-they are actively transported across enterocyte cell membrane
-then absorbed by capillary blood stream via diffusion

121
Q

What are some monosaccharides?

A

-glucose, galactose, and fructose

122
Q

How is Protein digested?

A

-amino acids are sloughed off and disintegrated by mucosal cells and GI Enzymes

-In the Stomach:
1. HCL denatures protein= unfold
2. Pepsinogen b/cms pepsin and cleaves proteins into polypeptides

-In Small Intestine:
1.Protease= breaks polypeptides into smaller polypeptides
2.Brush Border Enzymes Carboxypeptidase and Amino Peptidase= cleave amino acids
3.Active Transport across Enterocytes
4.Absorbed into capillaries via diffusion

123
Q

How is Nucleic Acids Digested?

A
  1. Pancrease secretes nuclease and breaks them down into nucleotides
  2. Brush border Enzymes in SI breaks the nucelotides into: nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate ions
  3. Actively transported across enterocytes and enters capillaries via diffusion
124
Q

How are lipids digested?

A

1.Lingual lipase breaks down lipids in oral cavity and stomach
2. Chyme:
-have a tryglercide exterioir
-bile salts have a polar and nonpolar end
-the polar end repels bile salts and sttracts the water
-the nonpolar end binds with the fats
- this turns big blobs into little blobs
3.Pancreas
-releases lipase and break triglyceride down into a micelle (1 Monoglyceride and 2 fatty acids)
4.Enterocyte
-micelles transport into enterocytes
-Smooth ER converts micelles into triglycerides with a protein skin = chylomicron
5. Lymphatic System
- chylomicrons enter lacteal ducts of the lymphatic system
-travel to thoracic duct and empties into the left subclavian where it is broken down into lipoprotein lipase breaks it down so it can be absorbed by tissues

125
Q

How much of everything do we secrete a day?

A

Consume 9 L. of this Secretions are:
Saliva= 1L
Gastric Juices= 3L
small intestine=2 L

126
Q

What does the Jejunum Absorb?

A

Na,K,Ca,Cl,Fe, Vitamins, H2O

127
Q

What does the Ileum Absorb?

A

Bile salts, B12, H2O and salts

128
Q

How does 500ml of chyme become 150ml of stool

A

-extraction of salt, H20, and vit. K

129
Q

What happens to our digestion as we age?

A

-Decrease PSNS Activity
-Poor absorption
-decrease smell and taste

130
Q

Why do we need nutrients?

A

Build cell structure
Replace old and worn out structures
Synthesizes functional molecules
ATP

131
Q

macronutrients

A

carbs, fats, and proteins

132
Q

micronutrients

A

vits, and minerals

133
Q

What percent of food volume is water?

A

60%

134
Q

Carb Sources

A

-Sugars →Fruit and milk
-Polysaccharides= starch

135
Q

Carb Uses

A

Uses → all converted to glucose and becomes ATP,
Glycogen, and Fat

136
Q

Carb Requirements

A

-100g aka 50%
-complex carbs are best
-300g in a 2000 cal diet

137
Q

Sources of Fat

A

saturated= animals,
unsaturated=plants

138
Q

Fat Uses

A

cushion, insulates, calorie storage, absorb fat soluble vitamins, plasma membrane stabilization

139
Q

Fat Requirements

A

-65 g/day
-30% of diet (excess is stored as fat)

140
Q

Protein Sources

A

incomplete= nuts, legumes, cereal
complete= eggs, fish, meat (animal)

141
Q

Protein Uses

A

-Structural & functional proteins
Not stored, need all amino acids or can’t make protein

142
Q

Protein Requirements

A

50g/day
20% of calories a day

143
Q

Water Soluable Vitamin Info

A

B, C
Some stored, excess in urine
B function as coenzyme in glucose oxidation
antioxidants= A,C,E

144
Q

Fat Soluable Vitamins

A

Ingested with lipids
Stored in liver
Toxic if accumulated
Vit. D= calcium metabolism
Vit K=blood clotting

145
Q

Minerals Needed in moderate amount

A

-ca,mg,phos for bone health
-K, Na, Cl= electrolytes
-sulfur=to make some amino acids

146
Q

Minerals Needed in Trace Amts.

A

Iron for hemoglobin
Iodine for Thyroid hormone

147
Q

Sources of Minerals

A

Sources; Vegies, legumes, milk

148
Q

Metabolism

A

sum of all biochemical reactions in the body

149
Q

Anabolism

A

make bigger molecules from smaller ones

150
Q

Catabolism

A

breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones

151
Q

Cellular Respiration

A

take energy in chemical bonds for food and store as ATP for cell use

152
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

creation of glucose from non carbs

153
Q

All we need to know about Cellular Respiration

A

-Makes 2 CO2 molecules =exhale
-Makes 8 hydrogen ions combine with oxygen we inhale to make water= oxidative phosphorylation
-Oxidative phosphorylation= 28 molecules of ATP
-1 molecule of glucose= 30 molecules of ATP
-686 kcal= 262kcal of heat
-38% efficient

154
Q

3 metabolic state

A

1.Steady State
2.Absorbative State
3. Post absorptive State

155
Q

Steady State of Metabolism

A

-dynamic breakdown and rebuilding of molecules
-Nutrient Pools:
1.Amino Acids-short term energy b/cms ATP or Fat
2.Carbs- ATP, excess in liver and muscles
3.Fat-ATp, excess stored in adipose cells and muscles

156
Q

Absorptive State

A

eating +3 hours→ food absorbed and burned or stored/ controlled by insulin

157
Q

Post Absorptive

A

-GI empty, using body reserves
-Fasting state
-need to maintain blood glucose levels:
A. Break down glycogen for the brain
B. Triglyceride → glycerol → glucose and into Fatty acids → ATP
C. Break down cell protein → glucose
-Prolonged fast catabolizes muscles –>Dies when heart is to weak
-Controlled by glucagon

158
Q

How is food intake regulated?

A

Brain:
-Hypotahlamus = hunger center
-GI Stretch = decrease appetite
-Glucose in blood= decrease
-Fat in blood=decrease
-Increase hunger=Glucagen, epinephrine
-Junk Food → depress
-Stress→ increase or decrease
-Temp increase= appetite decrease
-Lack of Sleep= increase or decrease appetite
-Leptin(tells how much fat is stored)=

159
Q

What does lymph system do?

A

-returns leaked fluid to vascular system

160
Q

What is the Lymph System Made of?

A

1.Lymph Vessels=Transport
2.Lymph=fluid in vessels
3.Lymph Nodes=cleanses lymph

161
Q

What are lymph cells

A

-lymphocytes and macrophages

162
Q

What is in Lymph Tissue?

A

houses lymph cells

163
Q

What are the lymph organs?

A

1.Spleen
2.Thymus
3.Tonsil
4.Nodes

164
Q

Lymph Capillaries

A

-Capillaries everywhere, but teeth and bone tissue
-Blind end, very permeable
-Made of endothelial cells that overlap slightly= mini valves
-Anchored by collagen (can’t collapse)
-Open w/ pressure→ picks up: fluid, protein, lymphocytes, pathogen, debris, and cancer cells
-Fluid goes into lymph nodes

165
Q

Where is lymph fluid picked up?

A

Subclavian

166
Q

What do lymph nodes do?

A

-cleanse debris
-examined by immune system

167
Q

GI Tract Lymph???

A
168
Q

Describe Lymph Flow

A
  1. Lymph Capillaries
  2. collecting vessels
    3.Lymphoid Trunks
    4.Lymphoid Ducts
    Right Lymph Duct–>flow of right upper half up to right subclavian duct
    Thoracic Duct –> rest of the body including left subclavian
169
Q

Lymphocytes

A

-Main immune system warriors
-Originate in bone marrow
-exists in reticular CT
Types:
-T cells
-B Cells

170
Q

T Cells

A

Attack infected cells, manage immune responses

171
Q

B Cells

A

-protect body from an antigen
-Become plasma cell and make antibodies

172
Q

Macrophages

A

-Everywhere
-Phagolytic cell (activates T cell)

173
Q

Dendritic Cells

A

Barriers: skin, Gi, Resperiratory tract
Phagolytic Cell

174
Q

How is lymph moved?

A

1.Valves
2.Muscle Pumps
3.Respiratory Pumps
4.Artery Pumps -vessels in CT sheath w/ artery pulse
5.smooth muscle of tunica media

175
Q

Reticular Cells

A

make reticular CT

176
Q

Lymphatic Cells

A

1.Lymphocytes
2.Macrophages
3.Dendritic Cells
4.Reticular Cells

177
Q

2 Types of Lymphoid Tissue

A

1.Diffuse
2.Lymphoid Follicles

178
Q

Diffuse Lymphoid Tissue Location

A

almost everywhere

179
Q

Lymphoid Follicles

A

-sphere of tightly packed lymphocytes
-germinal center=b cells dividing
-T cells in transit

180
Q

2 Main Types of Lymph Organs

A

1.Primary
-Where B and T cells Mature
-B= Bone marrow
-T=Thymus

2.Secondary
-where lymphocytes encounter antigen and are activated

181
Q

Lymph Nodes

A

-Cleanse lymph→debris microorganisms, filtered several times
-Immune system surveillance
-Lymphocytes monitor for antigen= mount attack
-Dendritic cells use Antigen and activated T cells
-100’s of clusters

182
Q

Lymph Organs Listed

A

1.Lymph Nodules (MALT)
2.Tonsils
3.Thymus
4.Spleen
5.Peters Patch
6.Appenix

183
Q

Lymph Nodules (MALT)

A

-(Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue)
-in mucous membrane
- no capsule surrounding

184
Q

Tonsils

A

-protecting ring around pharynx removes and responds to pathogen
-Types:
1.Palatine-the tonsils
2.Lingual- base of the tongue
3.Pharyngeal- nasopharynx
4.Tubal-Opening of pharyngotympanic tubes

185
Q

Thymus

A

-Important in early life
-part of endocrine and lymphatic system
-t lymphocytes mature and become immunocompetent

186
Q

Peyer Patch

A

-in ileum
-deal w/ intestinal bacteria

187
Q

Appendix

A

-lots of lymph follicles
-prevents bacteria from breeching wall

188
Q

Spleen

A

-function=lymphocyte proliferation
-immune surveillance of blood
- removes old RBCs, platelets, debris pathogens
-stores iron from RBCs
-stores platelets and monocytes
-has white and red pulp

189
Q

White Pulp

A

-clusters of lymphocytes
-immune surveillance

190
Q

Red Pulp

A

-lots of macrophages
-worn out RBCs destroyed
-Dispose of Pathogens

191
Q

List Main Components of the Innate Defense

A

1.Skin barriers
-skin
-mucous membrane
2.Internal Defenses
-Phagocytes
-NK Cells
-Inflammation
-antimicrobial proteins
-Fever

192
Q

How does Skin act as an innate defense?

A

-Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium
-Resists:
1. Weak acids and bases
2. Bacteria and their enzymes
3. toxins

193
Q

How does mucous membrane act as an innate defense?

A

-Line body cavities that open to exterior of body
-Cilia hair

194
Q

How do Phagocytes act as an innate internal defense?

A

-ID enemy and adhere to it
-Opsonization=Pathogen coated with complement or antibodies
-Engulf and form phagosomes
-Lysosome fuses → phagylosysome
-Kills prey w/ :
1.Acids, enzymes
2.Free radicals
3.Oxidizing chemicals
4.Pierce membranes w/ defensins

195
Q

How do NK Cells act as innate internal defense?

A

-Large granular lymphocytes
-Detect lack of “self” surface proteins on cells
-Then kill non-self cells by inducing apoptosis
ex. Cancer cells and virus infected cells
-Secrete chemicals that enhance inflammation

196
Q

How does inflammation act as an innate internal defense?

A

-Responds to tissue injury (Trauma, heat, chemicals, infection)
-Prevents spread of damaging agents
-Dispose of pathogens and debris
-Alert adaptive immune system
-Sets stage for repair

197
Q

What are the inflammation chemicals and what do they do?

A

Types:
1. Histamine=mast cells
2. Kinins= neutrophils
3.Prostaglandins= leukocytes
Causes:
1. Dilation of arterioles for increased blood flow
2. Increased capillary permeability by:
-by leaking exudate (protein rich fluid)
- by clotting proteins that wall off area, creates and repair scaffolding
-attracting leukocytes

198
Q

How do Antimicrobial Protein act as an innate internal defense?

A

-Virus Infects a cell →makes interferons
-Interferons:
1. Stop protein synthesis
2. Degrade viral RNA

199
Q

How does a fever act as an innate internal defense?

A

1.Systemic response to microorganism invasion
-Pyrogen increase hypothalamic temperature set point
–>Endogenous: from WBCs
–>Exogenous: from microorganisms
2.High temperature is dangerous
-Denatures Proteins
3. Mild-moderate fever
-Inhibits bacterial multiplication
-Increases metabolic rate to speed repair

200
Q

What is the role of adaptive defense?

A

-Protect from invaders and abnormal body cells:
A. Amplify inflammation and activate complement
B. If fail= cancer, aids

201
Q

What are the two arms of adaptive defense?

A

1.Humoral
2.Cellular Immunity

202
Q

Details about Humoral arm of adaptive defense

A

-B lymphocytes activated → plasma cells →secrete antibody
-In blood= lymph
=Bind to and inactivate intruder and mark it for destruction
-Also has extracellullar targets: Toxins viruses bacteria

203
Q

Details of Cellular Immunity

A

-Target infected cells, cancer, foreign cells
-T-Lymphocytes
-Kill directly or indirectly by enhancing inflammation

204
Q

What are the four characteristics of adaptive defense?

A

1.Involves B & T Lymphocytes
2.Specific → recognizes and targets and identified invader
3.Systemic→ not at site of infection
4.Memory→second response is faster

205
Q

What is an Antigen?

A

-stands for antibody generating
-Anything that triggers our adaptive defense
-Antibodys bind to specific antigens
-Large/ complex molecules= complete

206
Q

Hapten

A

-antibody incomplete link w/ body protein
-both combined= antigen
-Ex. poison oak →oil links w/ collagen

207
Q

Self Antigens

A

-Major Histocompatibility Complex
-Protein on Surface of Cells
-Tells WBC self vs. nonself
-Millions of combinations

208
Q

What are antibodies?

A

When a B cells sees an antigen and makes antibody

209
Q

Antibody structure

A

-Immunoglobulin (Ig) (5classes
-2 identical heavy chains
-2 identical light chains
-Variable region =bind to antibody
-Constant Region=determines class and function

210
Q

What is an antigen presenting cell?

A

-Engulf the antigen and present the fragments to T cells
-T cells activate T Lymphocytes
-Several Types of APC Cells:
1.Dendritic
2.Macrophages
3.B Lymphocytes

211
Q

Dendritic APC Cells

A

-Skin, CT
-Catch antigens and move to node to prevent it

212
Q

macrophage APC Cells

A

-Present to T cells to activate macrophages

213
Q

B Lymphocytes

A

-Only present to T helper cells in order to be activated

214
Q

5 Antibody Classes:

A

IG:
1.M
2. A
3.D
4.G
5.E

215
Q

IgM

A

-Monomer or pentamer
-Serum: 10%
-Largest
-Location: Mode 1 on B cell surface
-Function:
1. Agglutination
2. Activate compliment

216
Q

IgA

A

-Dimer
-Serum: 10%
-Location: Body Secretions
-Function:
1.Stop pathogens from attaching to epithelium

217
Q

IgD

A

Monomer
Serum: Trace
Location: On B cell surface
Function:
B cell antigen receptor

218
Q

IgG

A

-Monomer
-Serum: 80%
-Smallest
-Location:
-2nd cross placenta
-Function:
1. activates , compliments, and protects from bacteria and toxins
2. Provides immunity for fetus

219
Q

IgE

A

-Monomer
-Serum: Trace
-Location: secreted by skin and GI tract
-Functions:
1. Basophils and mast cells
2. Release histamine → allergies

220
Q

How do Antigens Destroy Intruders?

A
  1. Neutralization
    2.Agglutination
    3.Precipitation
    4.Lysis
221
Q

Neutralization

A

Simplest
Bind antigen, block sites, inactivates viruses, toxins
phagocytized

222
Q

Agglutination

A

-Cross-linked w/cells clumps
-RBC
-phagocytized

223
Q

Precipitation

A

Cross linked w/ soluble molecules
phagocytized

224
Q

Lysis

A

By activation of compliment

225
Q

Cells of adaptive Immune system

A

-Lymphocytes
-B cells=humoral
-T cells=cell mediated
-Origens: Bone Marrow
-T matures in thymus and B in bone marrow

226
Q

What do B and T cells need in thymus and bone marrow to graduate?

A

1.Need to be able to recognize self MHC(protein)
2.Tolerate self antigen
3.Recognize specific antigens
-2% graduate→apoptosis
-Genes determine their receptors and there are billions of receptor kinds and lymphocytes can only have 1 receptor

227
Q

What is an antigen presenting cell?

A

Engulf the antigen and present the fragments to T cells

228
Q

What are the types of Antigen Presenting cells? (APC)

A

1.Dendritic
-Skin, CT
-Catch antigens and move to node to prevent it
2.Macrophages
-Present to T cells to activate macrophages
3.B Lymphocytes
-Only present to T helper cells in order to be activated

229
Q

Humoral Immune Response

A

-Antigen binds to B cell IgD receptor and activates it
-It proliferates and forms clone, cells that differentiate into Plasma cells and memory cells

230
Q

Plasma cells (in humoral response)

A

-Make antibodies
-Make 2000 molecules per second
-Does this over 4-5 days

231
Q

memory Cells (in humoral response)

A

A. 1st exposure
-Lag of 3-6 days in antibody production
-Peak antibody response @ 10 days
-Plasma secrete antibody
B. 2nd exposure
-Re Exposed to same antigen
-Makes a faster, longer, and more effective response
-Increases antibody levels in 2-3 days
-More plasma cells secrete antibody

232
Q

Active Humoral Immunity

A

-B cell encounters the antigen and has to make antibody stored in memory cell
-Allows for long term protection
-Natural= viral or bacteria infection
-Artificial= vaccine →weakened of deadened pathogen

233
Q

Passive Humoral Immunity

A

-Given antibody, B cells are not challenged= no memory
-Natural: From Mom
1. Fetis gets IgG across placenta
2. Baby gets Antibodies from mom’s milk
-Artificial
1. Gamma Globulin shot
2. antivenom= snake
3. antitoxins= rabies, tetanus, botulism
4. Hepatitis protection

234
Q

Describe the cellular immune response

A

-Infected cells, cancer cells, foreign cells
-T cells respond
-2 Types of T Cells:
1.CD4
2.CD8
-Also, involves Major Histocompatibility (MHC) Proteins which have 2 classes

235
Q

CD4 T cell

A

-T helper cells
-Activate B cells, T cells, macrophages
-(T4,Th) direct immune response
-T regulatory= moderate immune system

236
Q

CD8 T Cell

A

-Cytotoxic T cells
(T8,Tc)
-Destroy cells displaying its antigen

237
Q

Class 1 of Histocompatibility Proteins

A

-Endogenous, a cells except RBC
-8-9 aa bits of protein →if abnormal→ infected, cancerous→ sounds alarm
-Needed to activate CD8 cells

238
Q

Class 2 of histocompatibility Proteins

A

-Only on APC surface
-Display debris of phagosomes
-Activate CD4 cells

239
Q

Types of T Cell Activation

A

-Can’t see antigen
-Need antigen processed and presented by APC

  1. T cells Bind and recognizes
    -Self MHC
    -I belong to me or absent= attack me
    -Antigen= Foreign invader → attack anything w/ Ag help me attack this

2.Activates and Divides
-b/cm Memory cells
-Clone Active cells→ release cytokines→ die 7-30 days

  1. Cytokines
    -aka Interlukins
    -WBCs used to talk to other WBCs
    -Proliferate
    -Activate
    -Come down
240
Q

The first step of immune response war plan

A

-exposed to antigen
-adaptive and innate branch off

241
Q

Adaptive Immune Response’s to branches in war plan

A
  1. Cellular
  2. Humoral
242
Q

Cellular adaptive response in war plan

A

-dendritic cells engulf antigen
-APC presents it’s MHC antigen complex
-APC branches into 2 types:

  1. CD8
    -Clone and make memory cells and a cytotoxic T cells
    -Cytotoxic T Cell attack and destroy cells w/ antigen

2.CD4
-Clones and make memory cells and T helper Cells
-T Helper cells can:
A. Activate CD8 Cells
B. Activate B Cells
C. Turn on macrophages
D.Turn on NK Cells
T Cells activates other cells by stimulating Cytokins
Also has T Regulatory Cells
Has inhibitory cytokines
Turn of Cytotoxic T Cells
T Helper Cells
B Cells

243
Q

What do T helper cells do?

A

-they can
A. Activate CD8 Cells
B. Activate B Cells
C. Turn on macrophages
D. Turn on NK Cells
-T Cells activates other cells by stimulating Cytokins
-Also has T Regulatory Cells
A. Has inhibitory cytokines
B. Turn of Cytotoxic T Cells
C. T Helper Cells
D. B Cells

244
Q

Humoral branch of adaptive immunity

A

-B cell IgD receptors bind to antigen and activates
-B Cell then clones itself and makes a memory cell for next time and a plasma cell
-Plasma cells secrete antibody
P=precipitate
L-Lysis by activation of the complement
A= agglutination
N=neutralization

245
Q

Innate Immunity in war plan

A

2 branches:
1. External Defense
-Surface barrier, skin, muscles
2.Internal defense
-Inflammation
-NK
-Fever
-Phagocytes
-Lysozyme
-Proteins-interferon
-Complement

246
Q

What does the Pyloric Atrium do?

A

anatomic region of the stomach that pummels and mixses food with juices to form chyme

247
Q

Some causes of Edema

A

-increased hydrostatic pressure
-decreased coloid pressure
-blocked lymphatic drainage

248
Q

What happens to MAP when end diastolic volume decreases?

A

-Decreases
-BV SV= EDV-ESV

249
Q

The teeth that tear food are what?

A

canine

250
Q

Some roles of the liver

A

-filters blood to remove bacteria
-detoxify toxic chemicals
-processes nutrients you eat

251
Q

What do Parietal cells do in the gastric gland?

A

-pump protons (hydrogen ions) into lumen
-make intrinsic factor

252
Q

Gastrocolic reflex

A

-when food enters stomach, mass movements begin in the colon in response

253
Q

Endothelians do what?

A

-vasoconstrict

254
Q

what leads to diahrea?

A

-hypertonic or alkaline chyme

255
Q

What do pancreatic duct cells do?

A

-secrete bicarbonate to neutralize chyme

256
Q

Eneric bacteria in the large intestines synthesize what?

A

vitamin K

257
Q

cholecystokinine (CEK)

A

-causes gall bladder contractions

258
Q

what are plasma membrane projections?

A

microvilli

259
Q

an enzyme released from brush border

A

lactase

260
Q

Characteristics of adaptive immunity

A

-has memory
-systemic
-specific

261
Q

Some defensive mechanisms used by antibodies

A

1.agglutination
2.precipitation
3.Neutralization

262
Q

Histamine is release when antibodies by with this antigen

A

IgM

263
Q

Diapedesis

A

process of neutrophil squeezing through capillary wall

264
Q

What organ does immune surveillance of the blood?

A

-spleen

265
Q

Some parts of the innate body defense?

A

-phagocytosis
-antibodies
-inflammation
-lysozyme

Semester 2 (7 decks)

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