Attachments - Interactions/Stages/Role of the Father

Question 1

What is attachment?

Answer 1

• an emotional bond between two people and this behaviour aims to maintain proximity/contact

Question 2

What are the two main types of caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 2

• reciprocity
• interactional synchrony

Question 3

What is reciprocity?

Answer 3

• an interaction is reciprocal when each person responds to the other and elicits a response from them
• for example, when a mother smiles and the baby smiles back

Question 4

What did Brazelton (1979) argue?

Answer 4

• basic rhythm of reciprocity is an important precursor to later communications
• its regularity allows the caregiver to anticipate the infant’s behaviour/respond appropriately
• the sensitivity to infant behaviour provides a foundation for after attachment

Question 5

What is interactional synchrony?

Answer 5

• a special type of interaction between the caregiver and infant where they carry out the same action simultaneously
• it is a reflection of what the other is doing (mother and infant reflect the actions/emotions of the other)

Question 6

What was Meltzoff and Moore’s (1977) study?

Answer 6

• four different stimuli (3 facial expressions and 1 hand gesture) were used to observe the behaviour of infants
• adult model displayed this and infants had a dummy in their mouth (during initial display)
  
  • dummy was removed and any reactions were observed/recorded
  • observer watched in real time, slow mo and frame by frame
  • it was then judged by independent observers who were asked to identify the model’s behaviours
• behavioural categories:
  
  • mouth opening
  • termination of mouth opening
  • tongue protrusion
  • termination of tongue protrusion
• ** inter-observer reliability scores were above 0.92 **

Question 7

What were the findings of Meltzoff and Moore’s study?

Answer 7

• young infants imitated specific facial gestures (association)
• in a later study, they demonstrated synchrony with young infants (innate behaviour)
  
  • Piaget (1962) cannot imitate intentionally
  • instead they pseudo-imitate because there is a reward
• supporting study:
  
  • Murray and Trevarthen (1985) studied 2-month-old infants interacting with their mother in real time
  • when the mother was not responding, the infants showed acute distress
  • this shows that they are actively eliciting a response

Question 8

Why are the strengths/weaknesses of caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 8

• problems with testing infant behaviour:
  
  • difficult to test the reliability of their behaviour
  • infants mouths are in fairly constant motion
  • difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours
• failure to replicate:
  
  • Koepke et al (1985) failed to replicate the study’s findings
  • problems may be due to the procedure rather than the babies
• intentional or imitative behaviour:
  
  • Abravenal and DeYoung (1991) found that infants showed little response when shown objects with diff. expressions
  • this shows that they do not just imitate what they see, it is in fact a social response
• individual differences:
  
  • there is variation between infants behaviour
  • more strongly attached infant-caregiver pairs showed greater interactional synchrony
• value of research:
  
  • studying this is important as it shows how infant interactions forms the basis for social development
  • babies associate their imitation with feeling and this leads to them understanding how others think/feel (Theory of Mind)

Question 9

What are the stages of attachment?

Answer 9

• stage one: pre-attachment (birth - 3 months)
  
  • 0 - 6 weeks = babies behave similarly to both human and inanimate objects
  • from six weeks, they become attracted to other humans
  • they are also happier in the presence of humans
• stage 2: indiscriminate (3 - 6/7 months)
  
  • babies are more social
  • they recognise and prefer familiar adults
  • they do not show any separation protest or stranger anxiety
• stage 3: discriminate (7/8 months)
  
  • by 7 months, infants show separation anxiety and show joy when reunited with a specific person
  • this is the primary attachment figure
  • they also show stranger anxiety
• stage 4: multiple (9 months)
  
  • after the primary attachment is formed, multiple attachments are formed
  • Schaffer and Emerson found that within the first month of being attached, 30% of infants had multiple attachments to someone else

Question 10

What is Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study?

Answer 10

• studied 60 babies from Glasgow and were visited in their homes every four weeks
• overt observations and interviews were used/mothers kept a diary of her child’s behaviour
  
  • left alone in a room
  • left with other people
  • left in their pram outside house
  • left in their pram outside shops
  • left in cot at night
  • put down after being held by adult
  • passed by while sitting in cot/chair
• mothers were asked to describe the intensity of any protest
  
  • behaviours that were studied were: separation protest/stranger anxiety

Question 11

What were the findings of Schaffer and Emerson’s study?

Answer 11

• 65% = first specific primary attachment was the mother
• 30% = jointly attached to mother and another figure
• 3% = attached to father
• 27% = jointly attached to father/mother
• most babies formed multiple attachments as soon as the first attachment

Question 12

What are the strengths of development of attachments?

Answer 12

• good external validity:
  
  • carried out in a natural environment
  • would not have shown demand characteristics
  • findings are applicable to everyday life
• longitudinal design:
  
  • babies and their mothers were regularly followed up and observed
  • so it has a greater internal validity as there are no individual differences
• no ethical issues:
  
  • consent was obtained from parents
  • confidentiality was maintained

Question 12

What are multiple attachments?

Answer 12

• Bowlby believed that attachments were hierarchal in nature with children having one primary attachment figure
• then secondary attachments to others
• rutter proposed the idea of multiple attachments were they are all of equal importance

Question 13

What are the weaknesses of development of attachments?

Answer 13

• methodological issues:
  
  • observations/self-report measures were used and both are prone to bias
  • mothers may have shown social desirability bias
• biased sample:
  
  • only consisted of a working-class population
  • parental care has changed considerably since that time (e.g. more women go to work)
• measuring multiple attachments:
  
  • babies may not have shown distress due to attachment but instead because their playmates have left them
  • there is a problem in defining the difference between an attachment figure and a playmate
• conflicting evidence:
  
  • it is not clear on whether babies can form multiple attachments
  • research implies that they can only be formed when infants have formed a primary attachment
• stage theories:
  
  • they suggest that development is inflexible (e.g. single attachments happen before multiple)
  • in other cultures forming multiple attachments may be the norm

Question 14

What is the role of the father?

Answer 14

• Grossman et al (2002) carried out a longitudinal study of babies’ attachments til teens
  
  • found that quality of baby’s attachment with mothers was related to later attachments (but not with fathers)
• supports the idea that attachment with fathers is less important
• however, he found that the quality of father’s play with babies was related to further attachments
• ** fathers have a different role to mothers **

Question 15

Can fathers be primary attachment figures?

Answer 15

• fathers tend to be the secondary attachment figure
• however, they are able to take the role of a primary caregiver if they adopt the emotional role of the mother
• Field (1978) studied 4 month old babies interactions with:
  
  • p.c. mothers
  • s.c. fathers
  • p.c. mothers
• p.c. fathers spent more time smiling, imitating and holding their babies
• this shows that fathers can also become primary attachment figures

Question 16

What are the strengths/weaknesses of the role of the father?

Answer 16

• real-world application:
  
  • can be used to offer advice to parents
  • mothers and fathers may be forced to follow stereotypical roles
  • this can help to offer reassurance
• confusion over research questions:
  
  • difficult to research as researchers are interested in diff. questions
• children with single parent/no father:
  
  • studies by MacCallum and Golombok (2004) found that children brought up with only mothers/same sex couples do not develop differently to those with two heterosexual parents
  • suggest that role of father is not important
• why fathers are generally not primary attachments:
  
  • due to traditional gender roles, women are expected to be more caring and nurturing
  • female hormones may create higher levels of nurturing

Question 17

What is imprinting?

Answer 17

• when a new born baby attaches to the first living thing they see at birth
• this happens very soon after birth within a specific time frame

Question 18

What is Lorenz’s study?

Answer 18

• Lorenz split goose eggs into two batches
  
  • one half were hatched in an incubator (he was the first moving object they saw)
  • other half were hatched naturally
• they were placed under an upturned box and their behaviour was observed when the box was removed
  
  • natural = went straight to mother
  • incubator = Lorenz (showed no bond with actual mother)
• critical period = 4-25 hours

Question 19

What is sexual imprinting?

Answer 19

• birds that imprinted on a human would later display courtship behaviour
• imprinting is irreversible and long lasting

Question 20

What are the strengths/weaknesses of Lorenz’s study?

Answer 20

• supporting studies:
  
  • Guiton (1966) showed that chicks who were exposed to yellow rubber gloves during their first few weeks imprinted on them
  • Lorenz found that peacocks who imprinted on tortoises
• dispute over characteristics of imprinting:
  
  • it is now thought of a ‘plastic and forgiving mechanism’
  • can be reversed (e.g. spending times with more species)
• problems with generalisation:
  
  • birds attachment system is different to mammalian attachment system

Question 21

What is Harlow’s (1959) study?

Answer 21

• used rhesus monkeys to see if attachments are formed as explained by Learning Theory
• newborn monkeys were individually put into different cages
  
  • wire mother with milk/soft mother no milk
  • wire mother no milk/soft mother with milk
  • wire mother with milk
  • soft mother with milk
• monkeys preferred contact with the soft mother when frightened regardless of whether it produced milk
• those with only a wire mother showed signs of distress

Question 22

What are the findings of Harlow’s study?

Answer 22

• the monkeys had an innate, unlearned need for contact comfort
• this indicated emotional security

Question 23

What are the strengths/weaknesses of Harlow’s research?

Answer 23

• theoretical value:
  
  • has helped develop understanding of human-infant attachment
  • shows importance of quality of early relationships for later social development
• practical value:
  
  • helped social workers understand risk factors in child neglect/abuse
  • important in the care of captive monkeys in zoos/breeding programmes
• ethical issues:
  
  • caused lots of psychological and emotional harm
  • many monkeys also died
• problems with generalisation:
  
  • human behaviour is governed by conscious decisions and we do not know how animals make their decisions

Question 24

What is the learning theory?

Answer 24

• idea that all behaviour is learned rather than inborn
• classical conditioning
• operant conditioning

Question 25

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 25

• learning through association
• UCS = food
• UCR = salvation
• NS = bell (no response)
• created an association between the bell and food
• bell (CS) then elicits salvation (CR)

Question 26

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 26

• learning through use of rewards
• positive reinforcement = gaining pleasure
• negative reinforcement = avoiding displeasure
  
  • behaviours that lead to a punishment are less likely to be repeated
• babies cry for comfort (e.g. feeding)
• if correct response is not provided baby cries again
  
  • two-way process as the caregiver receives negative reinforcement (stopping the crying)

Question 27

What is attachment as a secondary drive?

Answer 27

• learning theory draws on the concept of drive reduction
• hunger is a primary drive
  
  • motivated to eat to reduce hunger drive
• person supplying food is associated with pleasure/removal of discomfort and becomes a secondary drive

Question 28

What are the strengths of the learning theory?

Answer 28

• plausible theory:
  
  • explains one way in which attachments can be formed
  • most babies also form attachments with caregivers who feed them
• newer learning theory:
  
  • social learning theory where infants observe and imitate the behaviours shown by their parents
  • it is based on a two-way interaction (reciprocity)

Question 29

What are the weaknesses of the learning theory?

Answer 29

• based on animal studies:
  
  • behaviourists believed that humans are not much different from other animals
  • however, the formation of attachments is a complex process
• attachment is not based on food:
  
  • Lorenz and Harlow’s studies showed that food was not the reason why animals form attachments
  • Schaffer and Emerson’s baby study showed that they did not form primary attachment with physical carer
• ignores other factors:
  
  • it does not take into account things like interactional synchrony and reciprocity
  • best attachments are those were the caregiver is the most sensitive and easily picks up infant signals

Question 30

What is the monotropic theory?

Answer 30

• Bowlby argued that although infants may form multiple attachments, they have one with special importance
• this is the primary attachment figure
  
  • usually the mother but can be the person who responds most sensitively to the infant

Question 31

What are the features of the monotropic theory?

Answer 31

• monotropy:
  
  • law of continuity = more constant/predictable care forms a better quality attachment
  • law of accumulated separation = effects of every separation from mother can add up
  • p.a.f. provides the main foundation for emotional development
    ‎
• social releasers:
  
  • babies are born with a set of innate ‘cute’ behaviours that encourages attention from adults
  • they elicit caregiving from the caregiver and form attachments through a reciprocal response
    ‎‎
• critical period:
  
  • since attachment is innate, there is a limited window, which is the first two years of a child’s life
  • if it is not formed within this window, it would be difficult for the baby to form any further attachments
    ‎
• internal working model:
  
  • relationship with primary caregiver forms a mental representation of what future relationships will be like
  • it can generate expectations about what intimate, loving relationships are like
• secure base:
  
  • attachment is important for protection and acts as a secure base
  • it can help foster independence
    ‎
• continuity hypothesis:
  
  • IWM means that there is consistency between early emotional experiences and later relationships
  • the view that there is a link between early attachment and later emotional behaviour

Question 32

What are the strengths of Bowlby’s monotropic theory?

Answer 32

• animal research for imprinting/critical period:
  
  • Lorenz’s study on imprinting shows that it is innate
  • also found that if this did not take place within the critical period, they would be unable to imprint in the future
• support for monotropy:
  
  • Tronick et al (1992) studied African tribe where babies were fed by other women but still show one primary attachment
• support for social releasers:
  
  • Brazelton et al (1975) observed mothers and found that babies would be distressed when their mothers did not respond to their social releasers
  • shows that they are used to elicit a response
• support for IWM:
  
  • Bailey (2007) assessed 99 mothers and found that those who reported poor attachment to their own parents were most likely to have children classified as ‘poor’
• support for continuity hypothesis:
  
  • Minnesota longitudinal study found continuation between early attachment and later emotional/social behaviour

Question 33

What are the weaknesses of Bowlby’s monotropic theory?

Answer 33

• counter evidence:
  
  • other attachments are seen as equally as important
  • e.g. fathers help with social development, siblings help with forming relationships with peers
  • Schaffer and Emerson’s study focussed on idea of multiple attachments
• critical period:
  
  • Tizard and Hodges found that 21/22 children adopted at 4 formed a secure attachment by 8 years old
• idea that poor first attachments cause difficulty forming healthy relationships:
  
  • individuals with difficult/insecure childhoods can go on to develop positive and secure relationships in adulthood
• ignores role of father:
  
  • focuses on the role of the mother as the primary attachment figure and does not consider the father (seen as mainly economic)
• temperament may be important as attachment:
  
  • this is the child’s genetically influenced personality
  • generally, happier babies encouraged more sensitive caregiving than moody babies