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ECO3A: Individs, Popns, Commun > Economic Decisions (C3) & Arms Race (C4) > Flashcards

Economic Decisions (C3) & Arms Race (C4) Flashcards

1
Q

Optimization analysis?

A

= deals with what food items should an optimal foragers eat.

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2
Q

How to measure adaptive value? (2)

A

• Contribution to survival & reproduction (not practical).
• Immediate nutritional energy gain (important).

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3
Q

Eg of optimization analysis?

A

Shrews.

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4
Q

What diet selections models do we focus on? (2)

A

• Optimal Foraging Theory.
•

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5
Q

Handling time?

A

= the amount of time it takes a forager to capture, handle & chew prey.

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6
Q

Profitability of each food item equation?

A

P = E/h.

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7
Q

P = E/h symbols? (3)

A

• P = Profitability.
• E = Currency.
• h = handling time.

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8
Q

In what instance does the optimal forager feed on the less preferred food type?

A

When the profitability of the two food types is the same.

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9
Q

Why would the Profitability of the two food types be the same? (2)

A

• Due to the addition of a search time to the preferred food type.
• Increased search time for the preferred food type.

Therefore, optimal forager will eat less preferred food type on its way to most preferred food type.

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10
Q

Which food will be the most preferred/the one that the forager will eat?

A

Food type with the highest Profitability.

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11
Q

Eg of Profitability equation (Lay it out for me)? (5)

A

● Food 1:
E = 10.
h = 5.

Therefore, P of food 1 = 10/5 = 2.

● Food 2:
E = 5.
h = 5.

Therefore, P of food 2 = 5/5 = 1.

● Optimal forager should only eat Food 1 (preferred).

● If Food 1 becomes scarce & search time increases then:

× Food 1
E = 10; h = 5; s = 5.

Therefore, P of food 1 = E/(h+s) = 10/(5+5) = 1.

× Food 2:
E = 5: h = 5.

Therefore, P of food 2 = 5/5 =1.

● Optimal forager will eat both food types.

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12
Q

Considerations regarding profitability of foods? (3)

A

• Search time.
• Handling time.
• Physical constraints.

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13
Q

General equation of Profitability?

A

P = Energy of prey item/ Time take to acquire prey item.

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14
Q

Egs of physical constraints? (3)

A

• Size of prey.
• Maximum size processing.
• Minimum size threshold.

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15
Q

Symbols of equation? (5)

A

• E = energy provided by prey.
• h = handling time.
• s = searching time.
• T = total time taken to acquire prey item (h+s).
• P = Profitability.

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16
Q

Things to note regarding Profitability? (3)

A

• High quality prey always gets eaten.
• Lower quality prey only gets eaten when gain from eating > gain from rejecting & searching for preferred food.
• Less quality food inclusion depends on the abundance of highest quality food.

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17
Q

If e2/h2 > e1/ (s1 + h1) then…?

A

Forager eats both foods.

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18
Q

If e2/h2 < e1/ (s1 + h1) then…?

A

Forager eats food 1 only.

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19
Q

Optimal foraging theory predictions? (4)

A

• Rank order of the preferred food item depends on the amount of energy & time taken to obtain it.

• Whether a particular food is eaten or not depends only on the availability of the most preferred food types.

• Diet widens as the abundance of the preferred food type decreases.

• Food types should be accepted or rejected in an all-or-nothing basis.

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20
Q

Is 1st OFT prediction supported?

A

Not always supported.

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21
Q

Why is 1st OFT prediction not always supported?

A

It’s because the currency could be different to energy (i.e., it’snot always energy).

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22
Q

Egs that shows 1st OFT prediction is not always supported? (2)

A

• Starlings.
• Bees.

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23
Q

Is the 2nd OFT prediction supported?

A

Not always supported.

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24
Q

Why is the 2nd OFT prediction not always supported?

A

It’s because the OFT only considers interspersed food & not when food types are patchy/have patchy distribution.

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25
Q

Is the 3rd OFT prediction supported?

A

Always supported.

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26
Q

Is the 4th OFT prediction supported?

A

No.

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27
Q

Why is the 4th OFT prediction not supported at all?

A

It’s because animals generally show partial preference.

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28
Q

Egs of 4th OFT prediction not being supported? (2)

A

• Crows.
• Oystercatchers.

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29
Q

Eg of OFT?

A

Experiment with great tit (Parsus major).

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30
Q

Explain experiment of great tit (Parsus major)? (2)

A

• Large worms (Prey 1) and small worms (Prey 2) were placed on a moving belt.
• Varying distances between large worms = varying search time.

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31
Q

Why might the all-or-nothing OFT prediction be wrong? (5)

A

• Food items might vary in quality.
• Random variability in encounter rate.
• Value of food type varies over time.
• Simultaneous encounter with 2 food types.
• Other behavioural constraints (predation, competition).

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32
Q

What do you mean when you say Random variability in encounter rate?

A

We mean that there’s uncertainty regarding when or where the next meal might come or be.

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33
Q

Optimal decision rule?

A

= decision that maximizes the currency under the constraints of the environment.

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34
Q

Egs of Optimal decision rules?

A

• Optimal size of a food item that an animal should feed on.

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35
Q

Egs of OFT? (2)

A

• Crows feeding on clams.
• Oystercatchers & clams.

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36
Q

Explain Crows & clams? (4)

A

• Search time = 4 × flight time.

• If too choosy, they wander across rejecting too many small clams.

• If not choosy enough, waste lots of time feeding on small clams that take too much time to open relative to the small content of clam.

• Probability of the clam breaking is independent of size.

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37
Q

Factors to consider when deciding how long a forager should stay in a patch? (3)

A

• Distance between patches.
• Food in each patch.
• How long it will to feed in each patch.

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38
Q

Scenario of Marginal Value Theorem (MVT)? (3)

A

• As you pick fruits from a tree, energy gain starts to decrease when apples become less on the tree.

• Take longer & longer to find more apples.

• Do you keep looking or do you move to another tree?

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39
Q

Loading curve/Gain curve?

A

= curve of diminishing returns.

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40
Q

Aim of loading curve?

A

To maximize net rate of food intake while taking into account travel time between patches.

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41
Q

What is the maximum rate of energy gain on the gain curve?

A

The line that hits the gain curve at a tangent (steepest slope).

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42
Q

Longer time/distance between patch =…?

A

More time in patch.

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43
Q

Shorter time/distance between patch = …?

A

Less time in patch.

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44
Q

Shorter time/distance between patch = …?

A

Less time in patch.

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45
Q

Constraints?

A

= factors that can limit the forager’s ability to maximize the currency.

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46
Q

Egs of constraints? (3)

A

• Time it takes from nesting site to foraging site.
• Maximum number of food items a forager is able to carry back to its nesting site.
• Limits to learning & memory.

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47
Q

Minimum size threshold?

A

= the point at which consuming the prey becomes profitable.

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48
Q

If Food item > Minimize size threshold?

A

= food item in the environment is consumed.

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49
Q

If Food item < Minimum size threshold?

A

= food item in environment is rejected.

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50
Q

What does the minimum size threshold depend on? (2)

A

• Search time.
• Handling time.

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51
Q

Paper of Crows & clams?

A
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52
Q

Explain Oystercatchers & clams? (2)

A

• Easier to break small clams than large clams.
• Use bills to open small clams.

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53
Q

Paper on Oystercatchers & clams?

A
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54
Q

Why do you think there is no clearest rejection vs acceptance but always only partial preference?

A
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55
Q

Optimal Foraging Theory (OFT)?

A

= behavioural ecology model that helps predict how an animal behaves when searching for food.

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56
Q

OFT use?

A

Helps us predict the best strategy that an animal can use to maximize benefits over costs.

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57
Q

Marginal Value Theorem (MVT)?

A

= involves the decision of how long one should stay in a patch before moving to the next patch.

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58
Q

MVT attributes? (4)

A

• Limitation of the OFT.
• Search time for both food types becomes independent.
• Patchy food distribution.
• Summarized through the Gain curve.

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59
Q

Eg of MVT?

A

Foraging behaviour of Starlings.

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60
Q

Predictions of MVT? (2)

A

• Allows you to predict optimal time in a patch if you know the travel time & gain curve.
• More patches, less time per patch.

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61
Q

Assumptions of the MVT? (3)

A

• Resources are patchy at the spatial scale of forager movements.
• Maximum fitness = maximize long term rate of energy intake.
• Choosing among two patches available at once (simultaneously).

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62
Q

MVT constraints? (2)

A

• Travel time.
• Shape of the curve of diminishing returns.

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63
Q

MVT applications?

A
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64
Q

Eg of MVT & Reproductive decisions?

A

Dung flies.

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65
Q

Explain Dung flies?

A
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66
Q

Explain Dung flies in terms of Curve of diminishing returns?

A
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67
Q

What do differences in currency of Bees & Starlings show us? (2)

A

• How to use economic costs vs benefits analysis to compare alternative currencies.

• How to use economic costs & benefits analysis to understand why a certain currency is appropriate in each case.

68
Q

Things to note regarding models? (3)

A

• Although they have been used to predict the currency an animal would use, it doesn’t mean that animals do the same.
• Animals follow rules of thumb (maybe based from experience).
• Animals have to always assess their environment & re-evaluate their decisions at each step.

69
Q

Egs of different currencies? (4)

A

• Energy net gain.
• Net intake to the young.
• Energy efficiency.
• Risk of starvation.

70
Q

Energy net gain?

A

= energy content of food item.

71
Q

Net intake to the young?

A

= flight distance to young.

72
Q

Energy efficiency?

A

= extends their lifespan & nectar quantity.

73
Q

Risk of starvation attributes? (5)

A

• Affects an animal’s ability to be risk-prone & risk-averse.
• Perceived benefit (utility).
• Animal sensitivity to two things.
• Risk prone behaviour.
• Risk averse behaviour.

74
Q

Risk prone?

A

= prepared to gamble.

75
Q

Risk averse?

A

= rather go with the less variable reward.

76
Q

Risk prone behaviour attributes? (2)

A

• Energy requirements > Average expected reward.
• More variable options.

77
Q

Risk averse behaviour attributes? (2)

A

• Energy requirements < Average expected reward.
• Less variable options.

78
Q

Egs of Risk starvation? (2)

A

• Yellow-eyed Juncos.
• Shrews.

79
Q

Explain Shrews example under Risk of starvation? (3)

A

• High energy remand.
• Expected to be choosy about food source.
• Become risk prone when in a physiologically depleted state.

80
Q

Egs of constraints for dynamic models? (3)

A

• Risk of predation.
• Hunger state of an individual.
• Nutrient requirements.

81
Q

Impacts of constraints for dynamic models? (2)

A

• Change the way a forager makes a decision.
• Have a consequence on the habitat used by certain individuals & eventually affect the community.

82
Q

Central place foraging?

A

=

83
Q

Central place foraging attribute?

A

Deals with the economics of carrying a load.

84
Q

Costs of central place foraging? (2)

A

• Energy getting to feeding area.
• Energy returning from feeding area while carrying load of food.

85
Q

Egs of central place foragers? (2)

A

• Starlings.
• Bees.

86
Q

Explain the economic decisions of Starlings?

A
87
Q

Explain the economic decisions of Bees?

A
88
Q

How we get the curve: Starlings? (3)

A

NB: isp = is proportional to

● Size of load (isp) Rate of delivery of food (isp) Survival of young (isp) Reproductive success.

● 1st prey = returned easily.
Last prey = returned less easily (prey already in beak).

● Yields “Loading curve”.

89
Q

Central place foraging spectrum?

A

• Left = Give up too early — spend time in

• Right = Give up too late — spend time in ineffective search.

90
Q

Factors determining the rate that colonies gain energy? (2)

A

• Availability of flowers.
• Distance of flowers.

91
Q

Starlings vs Bees? (3)

A

• Different currencies.
• Rate of return per unit time (short term).
• Rate of return per worker (long term) [maximize energy collected/expended].

92
Q

Starlings vs Bees in terms of currencies?

A

● Starlings = net intake to the young.

● Bees = energy efficiency.

93
Q

Egs of rules of thumb/giving up rules? (3)

A

• Fixed effort.
• Fixed time.
• Giving up time (GUT).

94
Q

Giving Up Time (GUT)?

A

= based on the idea of how long being in a patch increases with more food in the patch.

95
Q

Egs of GUT? (2)

A

• Sit & wait predator: GUT = 0.5hrs.
• Time between successive prey arrivals: 0.1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.7, 0.1hrs.

96
Q

Adaptive value of risk-sensitivity & threat of starvation attributes? (5)

A

• Switch from risk prone to risk averse (when facing risk of starvation).
• Animal is risk sensitive in its foraging behaviour.
• Environment cues.
• Perceived value of the reward to the animal.
• Variability in searching time.

97
Q

Environmental cues?

A

= anything that predicts future increases in energy demand.

98
Q

Egs of Environmental cues? (2)

A

• Lack of rainfall.
• Low temperatures.

99
Q

Egs of animals regarding trade-offs in foraging & danger/predation risk? (2)

A

• Squirrels.
• Bluegill sunfish.

100
Q

Explain Squirrels?

A
101
Q

Explain Bluegill sunfish?

A
102
Q

Static optimization models vs Dynamic models? (1)

A

● Static optimization models
= external constraints only (little consideration for physiology of forager).

● Dynamic models
= internal & external constraints.

103
Q

How does foraging behaviour influence population & community ecology?

A
104
Q

Argue the importance of understanding foraging decisions as a driver of biodiversity?

A
105
Q

How does distance between patches influence the time spent in a patch?

A
106
Q

Given the same distance between patches, how does the patch food availability influence time spent per patch?

A
107
Q

How can bee & starling central place foraging be described through an optimal foraging graphical model?

A
108
Q

What are the currencies that optimal foragers use? Is there a single currency used by everyone?

A
109
Q

How can the hunger state of an animal or predation risk constrain optimal decision rules?

A
110
Q

Things to note about MVT? (3)

A

• High density patch = short distance, less time.
• Low density = long distance, more time.
• Same patches = one curve, not two.

111
Q

Why is investigating foraging behaviour so important?

A

It’s because it links to the other levels of ecological organization (trophic cascade).

112
Q

OFT applications? (2)

A

• Criminology.
• Cancer research.

113
Q

Eg of Importance/Application of understanding individuals foraging needs in conservation & management?

A

Research project on Sable antelope in Kgaswana Mountain Reserve through identifying the factors influencing habitat use (fires) & ecological requirements of sable populations, & using that information to manage them better.

114
Q

High vigilance benefits vs costs? (2)

A

● Benefit
= higher probability of detecting predator.

● Cost
= lower food intake.

115
Q

FitzGibbon paper summary? (4)

A

● Predicted that gazelles that spent less time being vigilant were more vulnerable to predation.

● When observing 2 gazelles it was discovered that the cheetah would often target the less vigilant gazelle.

● Therefore, the less vigilant you are, the slower you tend to be in fleeing quickly & less vigilant individuals may have poor physical conditions.

● Shows the importance of vigilance & the costs of lacking it.

116
Q

Bedriekoff & Ritter 1994 summary? (3)

A

● Talks on benefits of bunching close together on vigilance in Nxai Pan Springbok.

●

●

117
Q

Underwood 1982 summary? (3)

A

● Speaks on the effect of body size & habitat type on the vigilance behaviour in grazing African antelopes.

●

●

118
Q

Owen-Smith et al 1983 summary? (3)

A

● Speaks on the effect of forage quality & availability on vigilance in kudus.

●
●

119
Q

You et al 2021 summary? (3)

A

● Speaks on the effect of forage quality & availability in vigilance in zebras & wildebeest.

●

●

120
Q

Pros/Roles of large group size? (4)

A

• More eyes.
• Dilution effect.
• Bunching close together.
• Group defence.

121
Q

Explain More eyes?

A

Large group size, Less time for each individual to be vigilant.

122
Q

Explain Dilution effect? (3)

A

• Based on the probabilities of being targeted by the predator.
• Large group size, Low P (of being eaten).
• “Diluted” into the population😂

123
Q

Explain Bunching close together? (2)

A

• Large group size, More confusion to predator as he/she can’t spot who their target is.
• Individuals at edges more vigilant & more at risk than individuals in the centre.

124
Q

Explain Group defence?

A

Large group sizes are able to fight off predators with much success.

125
Q

Role of body size on vigilance? (2)

A

• Large body size, Less predation risk, Less vigilance.
• Works better in groups.

126
Q

Role of habitat type on vigilance?

A

Tall grasslands/Closed woodlands, High predation risk, High vigilance (compared to open fields).

127
Q

Role of forage quality & availability on vigilance? (2)

A

• High vigilance in wet season as feed on grass with head down.
• Low vigilance in dry season as feed on trees with head up.

128
Q

Role of day & night on vigilance? (2)

A

● More feeding during day, High predation risk, High vigilance.

But because of global warming/climate change with its extremely high temperatures…

● More feeding at night even though predation exists (low).

129
Q

Kinds of Prey responses? (3)

A

• Running.
• Hiding.
• Alarm signaling.

130
Q

Why are Hiding & Running not good/optimum prey responses? (3)

A

• Costs energy.
• Loss of feeding time.
• Leaving behind a potential favourable area.

131
Q

Which prey response is the best/most optimal?

A

Alarm signaling.

132
Q

Why is alarm signaling the most optimum prey response? (2)

A

• Alerts predator that it’s been spotted.
• Alerts the rest of the group that a predator is in the vicinity.

133
Q

Is sounding an alarm call an altruistic/selfless behaviour?

A

No, because if the animal left quietly, it would be left all alone & insecure.

134
Q

P = E/ (h+s) attributes in terms of evolutionary arms race? (2)

A

• Used to apply the arms race through increasing/decreasing the handling & search times.

• Adaptations by the prey to increase h or s to decrease its chances of the predator finding them.

135
Q

Evolutionary arms race?

A

= a continuous loop of the counter-adaptations of prey & predator.

136
Q

What cartoon does the Evolutionary arms race remind you of?

A

Tom & Jerry.

137
Q

How does crypsis benefit prey? (2)

A

• Increases survival.
• Decreases predation risk.

138
Q

Crypsis?

A

= avoiding detection by other organisms.

139
Q

Different adaptations? (3)

A

• Crypsis.
• Startle predators.
• Aposematism.

140
Q

Types of crypsis? (4)

A

• Background matching.
• Disruptive colouration.
• Counter-shading.
• Masquerade.

141
Q

Background matching?

A

= use camouflage to blend in with the background environment & avoid detection.

142
Q

Eg of Background matching?

A

Chameleons.

143
Q

Disruptive colouration?

A

= body patterns that break up the body outline.

144
Q

Disruptive colouration experiment? (4)

A

● Bird was placed in front of a screen with images of either a moth against a contrasting background or a moth that had Disruptive colouration.

● Next to the bird was a red buzzer for the bird to press it if it detected no moths on an image.

● When the bird detected moths against contrasting backgrounds, it pecked at the screen, but when it didn’t it pressed the red buzzer.

● It was found that moths displaying disruptive colouration survived better, therefore proving this crypsis type to be beneficial.

145
Q

Counter-shading?

A

= when an organism is lighter on its ventral side & darker on its dorsal side/upper part, which makes the animal appear flat & more cryptic.

146
Q

Eg of Counter-shading?

A

Sharks/Aquatic animals.

147
Q

Masquerade?

A

= where individuals resemble inedible objects.

148
Q

Startling a predator attributes? (3)

A

• Eyes on butterfly wings.
• Increases h (benefits prey).
• With more exposure, decreases h (benefits predator).

149
Q

Aposematism/Aposematic colouration?

A

= an anti-predator adaptation in which a warning signal is associated with the unprofitability of a prey item to potential predators.

150
Q

Aposematism attributes? (2)

A

• Warning colouration.
• Beneficial to both predator & prey.

151
Q

Eg of Aposematism?

A

Coral snakes.

152
Q

How does an Evolutionary arms race start? (3)

A

• Uses P=E/(h+s) to demonstrate how arms race works.
• Anything that increases h & s (beneficial to prey).
• Anyhthing that decreases h & s (beneficial to predator).

153
Q

Why hasn’t the one (predator or prey) led the other one (prey or predator) to extinction? (3)

A

• Prudent predation.
• Group extinctions.
• Prey are ahead.

154
Q

Prudent predation?

A

= predator makes sure to not eat all the prey & leave some for tomorrow (human-centered).

155
Q

Group extinctions?

A

= unstable systems might have gone extinct.

156
Q

Prey are ahead? (2)

A

• Life-dinner principle.
• Shorter generation time.

157
Q

Explain the Life-dinner principle?

A

Where prey is running for its life, while a predator is running for its dinner & may live to see another day if it doesn’t catch its prey however, the prey may not if its caught by the predator.

158
Q

Explain Shorter generation time?

A

Speaks to the fact that prey have shorter generation times and are thus forced to adapt quicker/evolve quicker (high selection pressure on prey).

159
Q

Eg of Shorter generation time?

A

Birds vs Insects.

160
Q

Why don’t predators become so efficient that they drive prey to extinction?

A

It’s because predators are not optimum enough to specialize on one type of prey & thus feed on many prey species.

161
Q

Why don’t prey evolve such perfect counter-adaptations that the predators become extinct?

A

If prey had perfect counter-adaptations they would have no selective pressure that forces them to maintain & improve those counter-adaptative strategies.

162
Q

It is the mating season for dung flies & there are two areas, each with dung piles with one female per dung piles producing eggs at a similar rate.

Area A: Average distance between dung piles is 10m.
Area B: Average distance between dung piles is 50m.

In which dung area would a male dung fly spend the more time? Draw graph & justify answer with it. (3)

A

• Male dung fly would spend more time in Area B.
• Graph: has one curve with 2 distances due to SIMILAR RATE.
• More time in B can also be concluded from distances between dung piles given.

163
Q

MVT use?

A

To predict how much time an animal foraging for itself (as opposed to carrying loads) will spend in each patch/site before moving on.

164
Q

Diminishing returns in each patch AKA?

A

Resource depression.

165
Q

Pros of optimality models? (3)

A

● Allows you to test whether hypotheses that are presented in the model are right or wrong.

● Assumptions are made explicit.

● Emphasize the generality of simple decisions facing animals.

ECO3A: Individs, Popns, Commun (11 decks)

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