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bio 150 > exam 1 (review slides + some content) > Flashcards

exam 1 (review slides + some content) Flashcards

1
Q

list some of the body’s responses to the fight or flight response

A
  • increased heart rate
  • dilation of airways (airways in lungs dilate for more air intake)
  • dilation of pupils (to improve vision)
  • increased blood pressure (ensure adequate blood flow to muscles and vital organs)
  • stored energy gets broken down (glycogen in the liver and fatty acids in adipose tissue)
  • suppression of digestive functions
  • increased sweating
  • heightened mental awareness
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2
Q

epithelial tissue + the different types

A

covers outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body
- contains cells that are closely packed

cuboidal: dice-shaped cells specialized for secretion, makes up the epithelium of kidney tubules and many glands, including thyroid glands and salivary glands

simple columnar: large, brick shaped cells, found where secretion or active absorption is important (ex. intestines)

simple squamous: single layer of platelike cells found in areas where exchange of material by diffusion (ex. lungs, blood vessels)

stratified squamous: multilayered and generates rapidly, common to areas subject to abrasion, such as outer skin, lining of mouth, anus, and vagina

pseudostratified columnar: single layer of cells that look like multiple layers because vary in height and position of nuclei, found in mucuous membranes such as respiratory tract

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3
Q

negative and positive feedback in homeostasis

A

negative feedback: “damps” a stimulus, plays major role in homeostasis
- ex. body temperature goes up so body brings it back down

positive feedback: amplifies stimulus, helps drive a process to completion, does not play major role in homeostasis
- ex. childbirth, contractions increase

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4
Q

endothermic vs ectothermic animals

A

endothermic: “self heating” creatures, regulate body temperature internally, regardless of environmental temp
- ex. mammals and birds

ectothermic: “environmentally heated” animals, rely on external sources like the sun or their surroundings to heat them
- ex. reptiles, amphibians, fish
- need to consume less food than equally sized endotherms
- tolerate greater variation in internal temperature

endothermy is more energetically expensive than ectothermy

great example of homeostatic processes for thermoregulation

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5
Q

endotherms and ectotherms - vasodilation nd vasoconstriction

A
  • many endotherms and some ectotherms can alter the amount of blood flowing between the body core and skin

vasodilation: widening of blood vessels = blood flow in skin increases, facilitating heat loss decreases blood pressure

vasoconstriction: narrowing of blood vessels = blood flow in skin decreases, lowering heat loss increases blood pressure

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6
Q

countercurrent exchange

A
  • mechanism used by animals to efficiently transfer substances, such as heat or oxygen, between 2 flowing fluids that are moving in opposite directions, reduces heat loss
  • example of circulatory adaptations
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7
Q

explain cooling by evaporative heat loss

A
  • process by which heat is removed from the body through the evaporation of water from the skin or respiratory tract
  • sweating or bathing moistens skin = hells cool animal down
  • panting increases cooling effect in birds and many mammals (moisture from airway linings evaporates with each exhale)
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8
Q

what is brown fat

A
  • type of fat tissue in the body that generates heat to help keep you warm
  • contains high number of mitochondria = helps dissipate energy as heat rather than storing it when activated - why called “good fat”
  • primarily found in infants and hibernating animals
  • mainly located around the neck, shoulders, and spine
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9
Q

thermogenesis & non shivering thermogenesis

A

adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature in endotherms

  • increased by muscle activity such as moving or shivering

non-shivering thermogenesis: takes place when hormones released in response to cold cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity and produce heat instead of ATP

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10
Q

metabolic rate (BMR & SMR)

A

metabolic rate: sum of all the energy an animal uses in a unit of time

determined by:
- animal’s rate of heat loss
- amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced by animal’s cellular respiration
- measuring energy content of food consumed and energy lost in waste products

basal metabolic rate (BMR): amount of energy endotherm body needs to carry out basic functions at complete rest, with an empty stomach, and not experiencing stress

standard metabolic rate (SMR): similar to BMR but typically used for metabolic rate of aquatic animals (ectotherms)

ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms of a comparable size

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11
Q

relation between size and metabolic rate

A

smaller animals have higher metabolic rates per gram than larger animals (bc they lose heat more quickly and need to generate more heat to maintain body temp bc of higher surface area to volume ratios)

  • the higher metabolic rate of smaller animals leads to a higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate, and greater (relative) blood volume, compared with a larger animal
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12
Q

adrenal gland

A

produce several important hormones called corticosteroids

  • cortisol (stress hormone)
  • aldosterone (regulates blood pressure and electrolyte balance by influencing reabsorption of sodium)
  • sex hormones (for secondary sex characteristics)
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13
Q

thyroid gland

A
  • regulates metabolism
  • body temp
  • heart rate & cardiovascular function
  • regulation of reproductive hormones and menstrual cycles in women
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14
Q

bowman’s capsule & proximal convoluted tubule & concentrations of NaCl and HCO3

A

cup like structure in the kidneys that catches all the stuff your body wants to get rid of, responsible for filtering blood and producing urine

  • collects initial filtrate

proximal convoluted tubule: twisty tube connected to the bowman’s capsule, next stop in the kidneys filtration process (recollects more nutrients and puts them back into the blood stream)

concentrations: NaCl is actively reabsorbed as it moves through the PCT, concentration of HCO3 may remain constant or decrease slightly to help regulate body’s acid-base balance

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15
Q

essential amino acids

A
  • 8 amino acids that your body has to obtain, cannot be created
  • all organisms require 20 amino acids (plants and microorganism produce all 20)

meat, eggs, and cheese provide all essential amino acids = “complete proteins”

most plant proteins are incomplete in amino acid composition
- deficient in 1 or more essential amino acid
- vegetarians can easily obtain all essential amino acids by eating a varied diet of plant proteins (ex. corn, beans)

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16
Q

mechanical vs chemical digestion

A

mechanical digestion: chewing or grinding, which breaks food into smaller pieces, increases surface area

chemical digestion: enzymes break the food into smaller particles that can pass through membranes
- enzymatic hydrolysis breaks bonds in molecules with addition of water

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17
Q

the 2 roles of stomach in digestion & chyme

A

storage & process food into liquid suspension

  • secretes gastric juice and mixes it with food through a churning action

chyme: mixture of partially digested food and gastric juice formed in stomach (what goes to the small intestine for it to absorb)

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18
Q

once food arrives in the stomach, G cells in lining of stomach secrete ________

A

gastrin

  • a peptide hormone that stimulates production of HCl and gastric acid
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19
Q

main difference between anterior and posterior pituitary gland

A

anterior produces its own hormones whereas posterior stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus

  • pituitary gland: growth hormone
20
Q

loop of henle

A
  • located in the renal medulla (inner part of kidney)
  • function: main job is to help body conserve water and regulate concentration of urine by creating a concentration gradient
  • as urine travels through the loop, passes through region with different levels of salt concentration, sets up a gradient where outer part of the loop has higher salt concentration than the inner part
21
Q

the loops of henle create a concentration gradient in the interstitial fluid surrounding the loop, with the concentration higher in the ________ and lowest in the ______

A

inner medulla; cortex

22
Q

thrombin gene

A

section of DNA that has instructions for making protein called thrombin

  • thrombin causes the blood to clot when there is a cut so that bleeding stops
  • mutation in this gene would cause blood to not clot effectively
23
Q

why is the velocity of blood flow lowest in capillaries?

A

because they have a large cross-sectional area (size of the circle in them), because of this, the blood is more spread out and evenly distributed

capillaries are the connecting points for arteries and veins

24
Q

SA (sinoatrial node)

A

natural pacemaker of the heart

  • generates electrical signals that travel through the heart, telling it when to beat and how fast
  • think of them as body’s orchestra = set the rhythm and coordinate the heartbeat to keep blood flowing smoothly
25
Q

chambers in the hearts of:
- fish
- reptiles/amphibians
- mammals

A
  • fish have 2 chambers (one atrium, one ventricle)
  • reptiles/amphibians have 3 chambers (two atria, one ventricle)
  • birds and mammals have 4 chambers
26
Q

lymphatic system

A

body’s drainage system

  • network of vessels and organs that helps to rid the body of toxins, waste, and other unwanted materials
27
Q

parietal cells, goblet cells, and chief cells

A

parietal cells: produce stomach acid

goblet cells: produce mucus to protect the stomach lining

chief cells: produce pepsinogen, which is converted into pepsin to break down proteins in the stomach

28
Q

rumen (fermentation chamber in cows)

A
  • breaks down tough plant parts into smaller pieces
  • when breaking down tough plants, produces chemicals called volatile fatty acids (energy packets) = cows absorb these packets and use them to keep themselves healthy
  • rumen bugs convert nitrogen into protein

essentially allows cow to live off a plant based diet

29
Q

duodenum

A
  • first segment of the small intestine
  • “mixing bowl” = chyme from stomach mixes with digestive juice from pancreas, liver, and small intestine itself
30
Q

the 2 hormones produced by the small intestine

A

secretin: regulates acidity of digestive juices released by the pancreas and the liver

cholecystokinin (CCK): stimulates gall bladder contraction and releasing bile into duodenum

  • pancreas also secretes a watery, alkaline buffer solution that contains bicarbonate (activated in lumen of duodenum to prevent auto digestion)
31
Q

transport across epithelial cells can be _____ or ____

A

passive or active

  • some nutrients can move passively across cells of small intestine by just following the concentration gradient (ex. fructose)
  • other nutrients needs energy (ex. amino acids, glucose, and vitamins are co-transported into epithelial cells with Na+)
  • Small intestine also reabsorbs water and ions (water reabsorbed by osmosis when Na + and other ions are pumped out of lumen of SI)
32
Q

processing in large intestine (2 main parts)

A

cecum: aids in fermenting plant material

colon: leads to rectum and anus, reabsorbs water, produces feces

33
Q

dentition & examples

A

dentition: animal’s assortment of teeth, example of structural variation reflecting diet

  • carnivores have large pointed investors and canines used to kill prey and rip meat
  • herbivores have premolars and molars with broad ridged surfaces that grind tough plant material
  • omnivores are adapted to eating both plant and meat
34
Q

mutualistic relationship between rabbits and rodents

A
  • rabbits eat plants and poop out
  • rodents eat the poop and get partially digested plant material
  • the bacteria in the rodents digestive system breaks down the cellulose and extracts nutrients from the plant material

coprophagy = feeding on some of their feces and passing food through alimentary canal a second time to recover important nutrients

35
Q

why do veins have valves?

A

to maintain unidirectional blood flow

36
Q

2 opposing factors that control movement of fluid between capillaries and surrounding tissues

A
  1. blood pressure tends to drive fluid out of capillaries
  2. blood proteins tend to pull fluid back in (proteins responsible for much of the blood’s osmotic pressure bc of different in solute concentration)
37
Q

coagulation

A

formation of a solid clot from liquid blood

  • a cascade of complex reactions converts inactive fibrinogen into fibrin forming a clot
  • a blood clot formed within a blood vessel is called a thrombus
38
Q

pathway of air in the throat

A

pharynx → larynx → trachea → 2 bronchi (one leading to each lung) → bronchioles → alveoli

39
Q

control of breathing in humans

A

breathing control centers found in medulla oblongata of brain
- sensors in medulla and in major blood vessels (carotid arteries and aorta) monitor O2 and CO2 concentrations (chemoreceptors)

40
Q

osmoconforming in marine animals and freshwater animals

A

marine animals: hypoosmotic to seawater so they balance water loss by drinking large amounts of seawater and eliminating ingested salts through their gills and kidneys

freshwater animals: constantly take in water by osmosis from their hypoosmotic environment so they balance water by drinking almost no water and excreting large amounts of dilute urine

41
Q

proximal tubule

A

site of reabsorption of ions, water, and nutrients

as filtrate passes thought proximal tubule, materials to be excreted become concentrated

42
Q

descending and ascending loop of henle

A

descending reabsorbs water = filtrate becomes increasingly concentrated

ascending - salt but not water is able to diffuse from tubule into interstitial fluid (filtrate becomes increasingly dilute)

43
Q

pheromones

A

how members of some animal species may communicate

chemicals that are released into the environment

serve many functions: marking trails leading to food, defining territories, warning of predators, and attracting potential mates

44
Q

the same hormone may have different effects on target cells that have: (2 things)

A
  • different receptors for hormone
  • different signal transduction pathways
45
Q

parathyroid hormone and calcitonin

A

parathyroid hormone: raises level of blood calcium

calcitonin: decreases level of blood calcium

bio 150 (8 decks)

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