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AP Psych > Psych Unit 3/4 > Flashcards

Psych Unit 3/4 Flashcards

1
Q

perception

A

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

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1
Q

sensation

A

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

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2
Q

bottom-up processing

A

analysis that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

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3
Q

top-down processing

A

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

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4
Q

inattentional blindness

A

failing to notice a fully-visible, but unexpected object because attention was engaged on another task, event, or object

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5
Q

change blindness

A

a phenomenon of visual perception that occurs when a stimulus undergoes a change without this being noticed by its observer

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6
Q

absolute vs difference threshold

A

Absolute Threshold- the minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect

Difference Threshold- the degree of difference that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected

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7
Q

signal detection theory

A

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

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8
Q

priming

A

a technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulusthe activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

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9
Q

weber’s law

A

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by constant percentage (rather than a constant amount)

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10
Q

sensory adaptation

A

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

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11
Q

prospagnosia

A

face blindness

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12
Q

transduction

A

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret

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13
Q

wavelength

A

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

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14
Q

hue

A

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light (blue, green, red, etc.)

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15
Q

intensity

A

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which as we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude

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16
Q

steps in vision

A
  1. Light waves enter the cornea
  2. Pass through the pupil
  3. Pass through the lens
  4. Projected onto the retina
  5. Rods and cones transduce light waves into neural impulses
  6. Neural impulses are sent to the optic nerve
  7. The optic nerve carries messages from each eye to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe
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17
Q

rods vs. cones

A

retinal receptors:
rods –> detect black, white, and gray; peripheral and twilight vision, or when cones don’t response
cones –> near the center of the retina, function in well-lit conditions, fine detail, color sensations

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18
Q

feature detectors

A

nerve cells in the brain that respond to the specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle or movement

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19
Q

parallel processing

A

the ability to take in multiple different forms of information at the same time - especially important in vision (seeing a bus coming towards you, you see its color, shape, depth, and motion all at once)

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20
Q

young-helmholtz trichromatic theory

A

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color (red, blue, green)

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21
Q

opponent-process theory

A

the theory that opposing retinal processes in three systems (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision - helps explain color blindness

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22
Q

pitch

A

a tone’s experienced highness or lowness - determined by the wavelength of sound

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23
Q

outer ear

A

the outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal

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24
Q

middle ear

A

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

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25
Q

inner ear

A

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea with sensory receptor hair cells (hearing), and semicircular canals controlling vestibular sense (balance)

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26
Q

place theory

A

the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

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27
Q

frequency theory

A

the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

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28
Q

kinesthesis

A

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

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29
Q

gate-control theory

A

the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks or allows pain signals to pass on to the brain

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30
Q

sensory interaction

A

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

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31
Q

gestalt

A

tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

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32
Q

figure-ground

A

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

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33
Q

depth perception

A

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

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34
Q

binocular cues

A

depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes

35
Q

retinal disparity

A

a binocular cue that compares images from the retinas in each eye and computing the distance depth can be perceived

36
Q

monocular cues

A

depth cues available to either eye such as interposition (one object in front of another) and linear perspective (parallel lines appear to converge in the distance)

37
Q

phi phenomenon

A

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

38
Q

perceptual constancy

A

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even illumination and retinal images change

39
Q

perceptual adaptation

A

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field (using visual distortion goggles)

40
Q

perceptual set

A

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another - expectations have a big effect on how we ‘see’ the world

41
Q

synesthesia

A

a perceptual phenomenon when stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to involuntary experiences in a second pathway (hearing music, but seeing colors)

42
Q

learning

A

a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

43
Q

habituation

A

a decrease in response to a stimulus after being repeatedly exposed to it

44
Q

associative learning

A

learning that certain events occur together.

45
Q

stimulus

A

any event or situation that evokes a response

46
Q

classical conditioning

A

a type of learning that happens unconsciously when an automatic conditioned response is paired with a specific stimulus (Pavlov)

47
Q

neutral stimulus (NS)

A

environmental factor that doesn’t elicit a conditioned response (CR) until it is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US) (bell in Pavlov experiment)

48
Q

unconditioned response (UR)

A

the unlearned, naturally occurring reaction to unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth

49
Q

unconditioned stimulus (US)

A

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a reaction (like food)

50
Q

conditioned response (CR)

A

the learned reaction to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

51
Q

conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned reaction

52
Q

acquisition

A

the “learned” behavior or response

53
Q

higher-order conditioning

A

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus (NS), creating a second (often weaker) CS.

54
Q

extinction

A

the diminishing of a conditioned response (CR); when a response is no longer reinforced

55
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response (CR)

56
Q

generalization

A

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) to elicit responses

57
Q

stimulus discrimination

A

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (US) - (like a bell vs. a whistle)

58
Q

operant conditioning

A

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished followed by a punisher

59
Q

shaping

A

reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

60
Q

positive reinforcement

A

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.

61
Q

negative reinforcement

A

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock.

62
Q

primary reinforcer

A

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (hunger, thirst, touch)

63
Q

reinforcement schedule

A

the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval); types include: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval

64
Q

continuous vs. partial (intermittent) reinforcement

A

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs vs. reinforcing only part of the time (results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction than continuous)

65
Q

positive punishment

A

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

66
Q

negative punishment

A

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior

67
Q

overjustification effect

A

the phenomenon where we lose intrinsic motivation to complete an activity that we used to enjoy for itself after a reward, such as a prize or money, is given to us for completing the activity

68
Q

biofeedback

A

a technique that trains people to improve their health by controlling certain bodily processes that normally happen involuntarily, such as heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and skin temperature.

69
Q

insight

A

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

70
Q

latent learning

A

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it LATER

71
Q

cognitive map

A

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. (For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it)

72
Q

token economy

A

type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards

73
Q

aversion therapy

A

a behavioral therapy in which an undesirable behavior is paired with an aversive stimulus to reduce the frequency of the behavior

74
Q

superstitious behavior

A

a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary

75
Q

learned helplessness

A

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

76
Q

problem-focused coping

A

alleviating stress by taking direct steps to confront or minimize a stressor

77
Q

emotion-focused coping

A

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction

78
Q

observational learning

A

learning by observing others; also called social learning

79
Q

mirror neurons

A

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s actions may enable imitation and empath

80
Q

prosocial behavior

A

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

81
Q

Albert Bandura

A

researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment

82
Q

John Garcia

A

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

83
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

84
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats.

85
Q

Edward Thorndike

A

behaviorist; developed the Law of Effect principle (behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, while those followed by unfavorable-become less likely)

86
Q

John Watson

A

behaviorist; famous for Little Albert study in which a baby was taught to fear a white rat

AP Psych (8 decks)

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