Influences of Media on Aggression

Question 1

What is media?

Answer 1

The collective communication outlets or tools that are used to store and deliver information or data to a large number of people.

Question 2

What are examples media influences on aggression?

Answer 2

Violent news stories.

Aggressive video games.

Question 3

What antisocial / aggressive links could there be between media and aggression?

Answer 3

Influence and normalisation of video games.

Children play video games, and are also more impressionable.

Question 4

What is a prosocial benefit of aggressive media?

Answer 4

A way of ‘letting out’ anger, form of cathartic release.

Question 5

How could SLT explain aggression following media?

Answer 5

People see aggressive behaviour, and imitate what they see.

This is seen largely in children who copy the perceived positive actions of their parents.

Question 6

What are the 3 methods in which video games (and their aggressive effects) can be examined by psychologists?

Answer 6

Experimental studies.

Correlational.

Longitudinal studies.

Question 7

Outline ‘experimental studies’ as a method in which video games (and their aggressive effects) can be examined by psychologists.

Answer 7

Lab-based and examine short term effects.

Question 8

Outline ‘correlational studies’ as a method in which video games (and their aggressive effects) can be examined by psychologists.

Answer 8

Real-life variables.

Question 9

Outline ‘longitudinal studies’ as a method in which video games (and their aggressive effects) can be examined by psychologists.

Answer 9

Real life, looking at studies completed over a period of time.

However, it is really difficult to control other factors and their influence on behaviour.

Question 10

The first Computer Game was developed in 1958 and was an electronic tennis game for two players.

Concerns over anti-social influences began to be studied in the 1970’s, but what were there concerns over?

Answer 10

Concerns over desensitisation effects.

Concerns over exposure to violence affecting moral judgements.

Conversely the cathartic release could be argued to be beneficial.

Question 11

Outline Bartholow and Anderson’s 2002 study.

(Experimental Studies)

Answer 11

Got students to either played a violent computer game (Mortal Kombat) or a nonviolent video game (PGA Tournament Golf) for 10 minutes.

They then all carried out the Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Task (TCRTT), a standard laboratory measure of aggression in which the students delivered blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to punish a non-existent opponent.

Those who played the violent video game selected significantly higher noise levels compared to the nonviolent players (6.97dB vs 4.60dB respectively).

Question 12

What does Bartholow and Anderson’s 2002 study demonstrate?

(Experimental Studies)

Answer 12

The more aggressive a video game is, the more likely someone is to disrupt/taunt/anger someone else.

Question 13

Outline a strength and a weakness of Bartholow and Anderson’s 2002 study.

(Experimental Studies)

Answer 13

A strength:
The research is causational. Cause and effect has been established.

Uses a standard lab measure of aggression - meaning it is consistent with other experiments (increases internal validity)

A weakness:
Only looks at short-term exposure to violent media, nothing long-term.

Participants were all students, so may have a history of exposure to violent videogames (prior to the study).

Question 14

Outline DeLisi et al’s research from 2013.

(Correlational Studies)

Answer 14

Studied 227 juvenile offenders, all with histories of serious aggressive behaviour (hitting a teacher/parent or gang fighting).

Using structured interviews they gathered data on several measures of aggression and violent computer game-playing.

They found that the offenders’ aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games and how much they enjoyed them.

The researchers argued that the link between aggression and video games was so well-established that aggression should be considered a public health issue and that computer games a significant risk factor.

Question 15

Outline a limitation of DeLisi et al’s research from 2013.

(Correlational Studies)

Answer 15

It is correlational.

This means that it demonstrates a link between aggressive media an aggressive behaviour, but we do not know whether aggressive media causes aggressive behaviour or if pre-existing aggressive behaviour means individuals are more likely to opt to play aggressive video games.

Question 16

Outline Robertson et al’s 2013 study.

(Longitudinal Studies)

Answer 16

Investigated if there was a link between “excessive” television viewing in childhood and aggressive behaviour in adulthood.

They studied 1037 people born in NZ in 1972/3, and measured their TV viewing hours at regular intervals up to the age of 26 years.

They found time spent watching TV was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour in adulthood, measured in terms of convictions for aggressive and violent crimes.

Those who watched TV more were also likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder and have aggressive personality traits.

Question 17

What else could have been a predictor in Robertson et al’s 2013 study?

(Longitudinal Studies)

Answer 17

Volume of the tv.

The content of the tv.

Question 18

Outline two confounding variables within Robertson et al’s 2013 study.

(Longitudinal Studies)

Answer 18

Demand characteristics.

Social desirability bias.

Many may drop out due to long time frame.

Question 19

Outline Anderson et al’s study from 2010.

(Meta-analyses)

Answer 19

Performed meta-analysis of 136 studies which comprised of correlational analysis, experimental studies and longitudinal studies.

They found that exposure to violent computer games was associated with increases in aggressive behaviours, thoughts and feelings.

This finding was true for both males and females and across collectivist and individualistic cultures.

The researchers claim that the effect of violent game-playing on aggressive behaviour is greater than the effect of second-hand smoke on cancer.

Question 20

What is publication bias?

(Meta-analyses)

Answer 20

The well-known tendency to publish only findings that are statistically significant.

Question 21

What are issues with meta-analyses?

(Meta-analyses)

Answer 21

The studies may be operationalised differently.

This means procedures and design will also differ.

The demographic of the participants may also differ.

Question 22

Why is it significant that Anderson et al’s 2016 study showed no publication bias influencing results?

(Meta-analyses)

Answer 22

The findings were raw and not edited by publication to make them seem more severe.

Question 23

What are the 3 key explanations for the effect of media on anti-social behaviour, of which aggression is the most disturbing.

Answer 23

Desensitisation.

Disinhibition.

Cognitive Priming.

Question 24

What is desensitisation?

(Desensitisation)

Answer 24

If we witness a violent action, usually we would experience physiological arousal associated with activation of the sympathetic nervous system.

For example increased heart rate, pupils dilate.

However, when children (in particular) repeatedly view aggression on TV or in video games, they become habituated to its effects.

So a stimulus (viewing violence) has a diminishing impact, resulting in a reduction in anxiety and physiological arousal upon viewing/ playing.

Question 25

Can desensitisation be psychological as well as physical?

(Desensitisation)

Answer 25

Yes, repeated exposure to violent media promotes the idea that using aggression as a method of resolving conflict is socially acceptable.

Question 26

Outline Funk et al’s research from 2004.

(Desensitisation)

Answer 26

Stated that exposure to violent media creates negative attitudes towards violence weaken, less empathy is felt for victims, and their injuries are minimised and dismissed.

Question 27

Outline Weisz and Earls’ study from 1995.

(Desensitisation)

Answer 27

Showed participants Straw Dogs (a film that contained a violent and prolonged rape scene).

Participants then watched a re-enactment of a rape trial.

Compared with those who had watched a non-sexually violent film, male viewers of Straw Dogs showed:

Greater acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression.
Less sympathy towards the rape victim in the trial.
Were less likely to find the defendant guilty.

These findings were not found with female participants.

Question 28

What could be concluded from Weisz and Earls’ study from 1995?

(Straw Dogs study)
(Desensitisation)

Answer 28

Males may have identified with characters in the film (so not the victim).

Males are less likely to be sexual assault/ raped than women.

1 in 4 women experience sexual assault/ rape.

Question 29

Outline Belson’s study from 1978.

(Challenge for desensitisation)
(Desensitisation)

Answer 29

Challenges the role of desensitisation.

Found no link between exposure to violence and ASB.

This study involved 1,500 teenage boys and explored hours watching television violence and anti-social attitude.

The lack of link demonstrates that desensitisation may not occur at all.

As it is self-report, it is subject to social desirability bias, making it easy for PPs to lie.

Completed in the 70s, in modern day violent media is much more common and ‘real’, so lacks temporal validity as results will most likely differ.

Question 30

Outline Bushman’s study from 2009.

(Helping the injured)
(Desensitisation)

Answer 30

Supports desensitisation.

When individuals who played violent games for only 20 minutes saw someone injured in a fight they actually took longer to help than individuals than those who played a non-violent video game.

This suggests that aggression online may influence potentially crucial decision-making in real life.

However, it could be argued that the findings are just correlational as the individuals may have taken longer as a result of increased decision making.

Being exposed to violence and gore may have created a positive desensitisation, allowing the individuals to calmly resolved the injury.

Question 31

How is their mixed research findings for desensitisation?

(Desensitisation)

Answer 31

The link between exposure to media violence and sensitisation may be more complex than originally thought.

Context and media type matters, for example - violent film e.g. war films, are very violent but may evoke sadder emotional responses.

Question 32

Could it work the other way round? If exposure to violent media provokes a diminished emotional response could it mean that violent and aggressive behaviour is less likely to occur?

(Desensitisation)

Answer 32

Perhaps being prone to violence makes the individual more passive, instead of seeking violence.

Bushman (2009), individuals that are exposed to violence may have taken longer, as they were taking time to consider the impacts.

Question 33

Outline individual differences as an evaluation of desensitisation.

(Desensitisation)

Answer 33

People may be more impressionable, and others more resistant to violent media.

Some may take violent video games literally, whereas some may be able to detach and perceive fiction.

Neurodivergence e.g. autism, may rapidly increase or decrease aggression without a violent source.

Question 34

Is aggression just cathartic and not due to desensitisation?

(Desensitisation)

Answer 34

Aggression in media and aggression in real life may have a weaker link, due to it acting as a cathartic release.

If people are more aggressive in video games, the release they get from it reduces aggression in real life.

Question 35

What is disinhibition?

(Disinhibition)

Answer 35

Most people believe that violence and aggression are antisocial and harmful.

Due to this, there are powerful social and psychological inhibitions against using aggression to solve conflict.

Disinhibition states that the usual restraints we feel surrounding violence and aggression are loosened after exposure to violent media.

Question 36

How can disinhibition be explained by SLT?

(Disinhibition)

Answer 36

Vicarious punishment and reinforcement.

All underpinned by learning.

Question 37

How does aggressive behaviour differ between real life and video games?

(Disinhibition)

Answer 37

Aggressive behaviour is often made to appear normative in such media, especially if portrayals minimize the effects of violence on its victims and suggest that it is justified.

It is not unusual for videogames to show violence being rewarded at the same time as consequences are minimized or ignored.

This creates new social norms for the viewer.

Question 38

Give 2 examples of social inhibitions. What concept does this link to?

(Disinhibition)

Answer 38

Reputation.
Avoiding criminalisation.
Fear of judgement.
Past experiences (of aggression)

This links to public self-awareness.

Question 39

Give 2 examples of psychological inhibitions. What concept does this link to?

(Disinhibition)

Answer 39

Feeling guilty.
Remorse.
Moral compass.

This links to private self-awareness.

Question 40

What 3 ways did Suler believe that disinhibition in video games could be explained by?

(Disinhibition in video games)

Answer 40

Anonymity and invisibility.

Solipsistic introjection.

Minimisation of authority.

Question 41

Outline ‘anonymity and invisibility’ as a factor Suler believe caused disinhibition in video games.

(Disinhibition in video games)

Answer 41

Increases disinhibition as consequences of online actions are reduced.

Links to deindividuation.

Question 42

Outline ‘solipsistic introjection’ as a factor Suler believe caused disinhibition in video games.

(Disinhibition in video games)

Answer 42

Internalisation of character roles may lead the individual to take on a different set of morals, in this case more aggressive.

Question 43

Outline ‘minimisation of authority’ as a factor Suler believe caused disinhibition in video games.

(Disinhibition in video games)

Answer 43

The individual may not see the consequence of their aggression, so actions are more likely to occur in the future.

This also blurs the line between social norms and criminal acts, as injustice is not corrected.

Question 44

What is solipsistic introjection?

(Disinhibition in video games)

Answer 44

Becoming cognitively merged with a player/actor in a game.

Question 45

Outline Berkowitz and Alioto’s research from 1973.

(AO3 disinhibition)

Answer 45

Supports the idea of disinhibition when aggression is justified.

This is because they found that PPs who saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more (fake) electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate.

This suggests that media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour when it is presented as justified.

This might be because it reinforces the idea that ‘fighting fire with fire’ is a positive, when in reality it only makes situations worse

Question 46

Vengeance is a powerful justification for violence, and justified violence is more likely to be seen as socially acceptable.

What does this add to the disinhibition concept? Why?

(AO3 disinhibition)

Answer 46

This adds validity to the disinhibition concept.

This is because it demonstrates the link between the removal of social constraints and subsequent aggressive behaviour, at least in the case of justified aggression.

Question 47

Vengeance is a powerful justification for violence, and justified violence is more likely to be seen as socially acceptable in video games.

What doesn’t this explain?

(AO3 disinhibition)

Answer 47

This does not span all types of aggression are explained through this.

E.g. hostile aggression, or non-premeditated aggression (hot-blooded reactive).

Question 48

Works well to explain disinhibition in vengeful film situations and also for violent video games, but doesn’t explain all forms of media. Such as?

(AO3 disinhibition)

Answer 48

News.

Question 49

Research suggests that the effect of disinhibition is only relevant while engaging with the media and that the effect is negligible while away from the media.

What does this say about media influences on aggression?

(AO3 disinhibition)

Answer 49

This renders media influences on aggression as a short-term effect.

How long does disinhibition last? Some individuals may pay greater attention to media than others.

Question 50

Outline ‘disinhibition, individual differences, and engagement’ in relation to media influences on aggression.

(AO3 disinhibition)

Answer 50

Children, more easily influenced by media roles.

Psychopaths, may take specific fictional aggressive actions literally, applying them into the real world.

Question 51

What is cognitive priming?

Answer 51

The idea that cues presented in media provide us with a “script” and may trigger behaviour in the recipient.

This can be both prosocial and aggressive.

Question 52

Outline the process of cognitive priming.

Answer 52

We spend a lot of time using media (television, social media, video games) so we are exposed to cues regularly.

The effects of these cues are to some extent, moderated as we do not blindly act out what we see and the cues will act as triggers only if the context is similar, which is rarely is.

Question 53

Is cognitive priming general or specific?

Answer 53

Could be specific or general.

(re-enactment of specific violent scenes or more general e.g more exposure = more aggression).

Question 54

Outline Berkowitz’s research from 1984.

Answer 54

Stated that aggressive ideas shown in media (film) can “spark off” other aggressive thoughts.

After viewing a violent film, the viewer is ‘primed’’ to respond aggressively.

Question 55

Outline Huesmann’s research from 1982.

Answer 55

Supports the idea that children may be influenced by cognitive priming.

They argued that children learn problem-solving through observation and that aggressive scripts may be learnt through violent scenes.

If children find themselves in the same situation in real life they may recall the violent script as a solution.

This suggests that they have been cognitively primed with a schema or script.

Question 56

Outline Bushman and Anderson’s research from 2002.

Answer 56

Supports the idea that aggressive media can influence long-term decisions and mindsets.

This is because they found that someone who habitually watches violent media accesses stored aggressive scripts more readily.

This suggests that they are more likely to interpret cues as aggressive, resort to a violent solution ignoring alternative courses of action.

Question 57

What are the AO2 applications of Bushman and Anderson’s research from 2002?

(Support for the idea that aggressive media can influence long-term decisions and mindsets)

Answer 57

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy could challenge hostile cognitive biases and help encourage alternative interpretations such as humour or negotiation.

Question 58

Outline Murray et al’s study from 2007.

Answer 58

Neuro – scientific support

Brain activity measured via fMRI scans of children watching violent and non-violent films.

Found those watching violence had increased activity in brain areas linked to emotions and those linked to episodic memory.

Shows that memories had been formed that could later react to cues and prompt aggressive or violent behaviour.

However, it is difficult to measure cognitive processes, e.g. attention, retention: so having a biological measure lends support to the explanation.

Question 59

Outline Holloway et al’s study from 1977.

Answer 59

Supports the idea that disinhibition can be used for pro-social means.

This is because they found that PPs who overheard a pro social message on the radio in the waiting area before participating in a study were more co-operative in a bargaining task than those who did not hear the bulletin.

This shows a pro-social effect of the cognitive priming of good news.

Question 60

Is cognitive priming specific or general?

(A03 Cognitive Priming)

Answer 60

For some, specific elements from media may be extracted, whereas generally it is more likely for increased exposure to just increase aggression.

Question 61

Evaluate individual differences and predispositions within cognitive priming.

(A03 Cognitive Priming)

Answer 61

Some more predisposed e.g. biology, hormones, genetics, personality.

Some more easily primed than others.

Question 62

Would it work to change an aggressive individual to a prosocial individual through cognitive priming?

(A03 Cognitive Priming)

Answer 62

In theory it would work, but not practically.

It depends on the source of the aggression may not be able to be fixed through cognitive priming.

E.g. some people may behave aggressively due to biological pre-dispositions.

Question 63

Mediating processes need to be conducive to imitating behaviour. Is cognitive priming too simplistic?

(A03 Cognitive Priming)

Answer 63

You need to have the right set of circumstances (vicarious punishment/ reinforcement).

How much is an individual paying attention? Did they interpret the media in the same way as others?

Question 64

Evaluate ‘cause and effect correlations’ within cognitive priming.

(A03 Cognitive Priming)

Answer 64

Do aggressive/violent people chose to watch more violent films/play more violent video games or do violent programmes cause violent behaviour?