Parasocial Relationships

Question 1

What is a parasocial relationship?

Answer 1

‘Para’ means ‘resembling’ so parasocial relationships are those which are similar to a ‘normal’ relationships but lack a key element.

Question 2

What did Flanagan et al state in 2016?

Answer 2

Stated that parasocial relationships are one-sided, unreciprocated relationships, usually with a celebrity.

Question 3

What did Giles state in 2002?

Answer 3

Stated that parasocial relationships exist beyond the person’s social network.

Question 4

Who proposed the word ‘parasocial interaction’?

Answer 4

Horton and Wohl (1956):

Question 5

Why did Horton and Wohl introduce the term parasocial interaction? (1956)

Answer 5

It was introduced in order to describe the responses of people to entertainment characters whom they feel they know, but have never met.​

They pointed out that many people in the media address viewers more or less directly, and that people often respond as though the media person is in front of them.​

Question 6

Parasocial relationships resemble physical interpersonal relationships, like friendships in what 3 ways?​

Answer 6

Voluntary​.

Have a personal focus​.

Provide companionship and are preceded by attraction​.

Question 7

Why do people collect celebrity underwear? State 3 reasons.

Answer 7

Feel closer to the celebrity.

Appreciation of the history and legacy.

Clothes from highly significant people and royals.

Own the clothes as a flaunt to others.

Acquisition of celebrity glamour.

Acts as an investment, potentially increases in price over time.

Show dedication e.g. super fan.

Question 8

What are the 5 factors affecting parasocial relationships?

Answer 8

Childhood.

Age.

Gender.

Education.

Personality traits.

Question 9

How is childhood a factor that affects parasocial relationships?

Answer 9

Individuals with insecure-resistant attachments would be more prone to developing parasocial relationships - (Ainsworth).

Question 10

How is age a factor that affects parasocial relationships?

Answer 10

Generally assumed that younger people are more preoccupied with celebrities.

Celebrity worship peaks between 11-17 years - (Levy, 1979).

Question 11

How is gender a factor that affects parasocial relationships?

Answer 11

Men cite sports stars as favourite celebrities, whereas women cite from entertainment/ art - (McCutcheon et al 2002).

Question 12

How is education a factor that affects parasocial relationships?

Answer 12

Less education the greater the celebrity worship.

Education is related to intelligence.

Could be seen as socially sensitive as a stereotype is generated that anyone with a parasocial relationship is deemed as less intelligent.

Question 13

How is personality trait a factor that affects parasocial relationships?

Answer 13

People who are shy or lonely.

Question 14

Parasocial relationships used to be seen as abnormal and thought to have originated from factors such as? State 3.

Answer 14

Neuroticism.

Isolation.

Loneliness.

Fear.

Lack of social interaction.​

Question 15

Parasocial relationships were initial seen as negative - but are now thought that parasocial relationships help people, especially young people with identity formation, they can observe a positive role model.​

What ideas does this link to?

Answer 15

Links to SLT and humanism’s ideas of the self.

Question 16

Outline Rubin et al’s study from 1985.

(Supports the idea that parasocial relationships are inadequate substitutes)
(Parasocial relationships AO3)

Answer 16

Supports the idea that parasocial relationships are inadequate substitutes.

This is because they found little correlation between loneliness and the strength of TV viewers’ parasocial relationships with onscreen characters.

This refutes the idea that parasocial relationships are a dysfunctional substitute for inadequate relationships.

Question 17

Outline Turner’s study from 1993.

(Supports the idea that parasocial relationships are similar to real interpersonal relationships)

Answer 17

Supports the idea that parasocial relationships are similar to real interpersonal relationships.

This is because they found that parasocial relationships, like friendships, tend to form with media personalities with perceived similar attitudes.

However, no similarity was found between levels of physical attractiveness and background, which often occurs with face-to-face relationships.

Question 18

Outline Giles’ study from 2002.

(Supports the idea that parasocial relationships are affected by age factors)

Answer 18

Supports the idea that parasocial relationships are affected by age factors.

This is because they found that younger people were more attracted to media personalities than older people.

Question 19

Outline McCutcheon et al’s study from 2002.

(Supports the idea that the less of an education someone has, the more interested and intense they will have with a celebrity)

Answer 19

Supports the idea that the less of an education someone has, the more interested and intense they will have with a celebrity.

This is because they found a negative correlation of -0.4 between amount of education and amount of celebrity worship.

Question 20

Outline Thompson et al’s study from 2006.

(Supports the idea that parasocial relationships resemble face-to-face relationships in many ways)

Answer 20

Supports the idea that parasocial relationships resemble face-to-face relationships in many ways.

This is because they reported that parasocial relationships satisfy many of the main needs fulfilled by real relationships - the need for relatedness (being connected to someone), competence (a sense of mastery and achievement) and independence.

Question 21

What is celebrity worship?

Answer 21

Fan is short for fanatic, a definition of which is “a person whose enthusiasm and zeal for something is extreme or beyond the normal limits”.

The extent to which a person is a fan of a celebrity can be considered along a continuum, at the one end showing a passing interest and the other intense worship.​

Most fans worship is somewhere in the middle of this continuum and amount to little more than a strong interest.​

Question 22

What did McCutcheon develop in 2002?

(Levels of Parasocial Relationships)

Answer 22

Developed the Celebrity Attitude Scale, which was used in a large scale survey by Maltby (2006). ​

They identified three levels of parasocial relationships, each level describes the attitudes and behaviours linked to forms of celebrity worship.​

• Entertainment-social​.
• Intense-personal​.
• Borderline-pathological​.

Question 23

Outline entertainment-social as a level of parasocial relationship.

Answer 23

Is the least intense level of celebrity worship.

It involves individuals regarding their favourite celebrity as a source of entertainment and of social interaction.

For example, keeping up with news about them or discussing articles in magazines.​

Giles (2002) found that parasocial relationships were a fruitful source of gossip in offices.​

Linked with statements such as: Learning the life story of my favourite celebrity is a lot of fun.

Question 24

Outline intense-personal as a level of parasocial relationship.

Answer 24

This is an intermediate level of celebrity worship which reflects a greater personal involvement with the celebrity.

It involves individuals having intense and compulsive feelings towards their favourite celebrity.

For example, considering them to be their soul mate.​

Linked with statements such as: I share with my favourite celebrity a special bond that cannot be described with words.

Question 25

Outline borderline-pathological as a level of parasocial relationship.

Answer 25

This is the strongest level of celebrity worship, featuring uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours which relate to their favourite celebrity.​

For example, somebody claiming they would die for their favourite celebrity.​

For example, spending (or planning to spend) large amounts of money on a celebrity related object.​

For example, being willing to perform some illegal act on the celebrity’s say so. ​

Linked with statements such as: If I were lucky enough to meet my favourite celebrity, and they asked me to do something illegal as a favour, I would probably.

Question 26

Outline strengths of the celebrity attitude scale.

Answer 26

Quantitative, so objective.

Easy to administer.

Able to collect a lot of data quickly.

Question 27

Outline weaknesses of the celebrity attitude scale.

Answer 27

Subject to social desirability bias as individuals may not want to answer truthfully if they have delusional thoughts on celebrities.

Question and answer interpretation may vary - subjective.

Question 28

Is the celebrity attitude scale nomothetic?

Answer 28

The scale is an example of a nomothetic, as it uses objectivity to create broad conclusions.

It could be argued that a more idiographic approach is better suited, as the introspective and subjective answers make response personal and detailed to examine.

Question 29

Who proposed the AAM?

(Absorption-Addiction Model)

Answer 29

Proposed by McCutcheon in 2002.

Question 30

What is the AAM?

(Absorption-Addiction Model)

Answer 30

Stated that the tendency to form parasocial relationships in terms of deficiencies people have in their own lives.

E.g. a weak sense of self-identity and also a lack of fulfilment in their everyday relationships; they could also be poorly adjusted psychologically. A parasocial relationship allows them an ‘escape from reality or a way of finding fulfilment that they can’t in their actual relationships’.

Question 31

What does the AAM link to?

(Absorption-Addiction Model)

Answer 31

The three levels of parasocial relationships.

Someone who initially has an entertainment-social orientation to a certain celebrity may be triggered into a more intense involvement by some personal crisis or stressful life event.​

Question 32

What links to other topics can be in the AAM?

(Absorption-Addiction Model)

Answer 32

Psychopathology:
Deviation from ideal mental health: personal growth.
Deviation from ideal social norms
Failure to function adequately: maladaptiveness.

Question 33

Outline absorption, as part of the AAM.

(Absorption-Addiction Model)

Answer 33

Absorption:
Seeking fulfilment in the celebrity worship motivates the individual to focus their attention as far as possible on the celebrity, to become pre-occupied with the their existence and identify with them.​

Question 34

Outline addiction, as part of the AAM.

(Absorption-Addiction Model)

Answer 34

Addiction:
An individual needs to sustain their commitment to the relationship by feeling stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity.​

This may lead to more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking e.g. stalking a celebrity because they believe he or she really want to reciprocate your feelings, but someone is stopping them.​

Question 35

Giles and Maltby (2006) described how progression through the absorption-addiction model occurs in three levels. State them.

(Absorption-Addiction Model)

Answer 35

1.) Entertainment-social:
Individuals are attracted to media personalities because they are interesting.​

2.) Intense-personal:
Individuals feel a connection with the media personality ‘soul mates’​.

3.) Borderline-pathological:
Individuals in this category have uncontrollable behaviours and obsessive fantasies about their media personality which are divorced from reality and prevent them from living a normal life.​

Question 36

Outline issues with the AAM.

(Absorption-Addiction Model)

Answer 36

Reductionist - states delusional behaviour is a result of absorption-addiction, what about prior mental health conditions?

Paints parasocial relationships as negative.

Doesn’t count for ID, not everyone with life stresses will have a celeb addiction.

This model has be criticised for being a better description of parasocial relationships rather than an explanation.​ E.g. the model is capable of describing the characteristics of people who are most absorbed by and addicted to celebrity (borderline psychological).​

Question 37

What does the attachment theory of parasocial explanation suggest? What did Bowlby and Ainsworth say?

(Attachment Theory Explanation)

Answer 37

Suggests that there is a tendency to form parasocial relationships in adolescence and adulthood because of attachment difficulties (internal working model) in early childhood.​

Bowlby stated that infants without/ with a late monotropic attachment, perhaps outside of the critical period, may seek attachments to make up for a lack of monotropic one.

Ainsworth stated that insecure-resistant individuals want consistent attachments e.g. with a celebrity.

Question 38

Outline insecure-resistant attachment types in relation to parasocial relationships.

Answer 38

These types are most likely to form parasocial relationships as adults.​

This is because they need to have their needs met, but in a relationships that is not accompanied by the threat of rejection, break up and disappointment that real-life ones can bring.​

Question 39

Outline insecure-avoidant attachment types in relation to parasocial relationships.

Answer 39

These types tend to avoid the pain and rejection of relationships altogether.​

Question 40

Outline similarities of both parasocial explanations.

Answer 40

Attachment theory explanation: Tries to fulfil something missing from childhood. Absorption-addiction model: Fulfilment of something missing.

Deterministic: Assumes that parasocial relationships develop in a certain way.

Nurture: External forces and influences lead to the development of parasocial relationships.

Links to ‘failure to function adequately’: Both can be linked to this definition of abnormality. E.g. engaging in stalking behaviour, (borderline-pathological).

Question 40

Outline two differences between the AAM and the ATE.

Answer 40

Absorption-addiction model suggests that you move up the scale, whereas attachment theory explanation suggests that you start on a particular parasocial level (entering at a particular point).

Absorption-addiction model may be easier to identify causes of why parasocial relationships develop, and thus allow for treatment and combative strategies. Whereas attachment theory explanation may be harder to unpick or identify the cause of the relationship - this may take longer (more time consuming).

Attachment theory explanation is based on long-standing research and knowledge, whereas absorption-addiction model is a new and emerging theory. This suggests that the explanation through absorption-addiction mode is more developmental, and may be less accurate than attachment theory explanation.

Question 41

Outline Meloy’s study from 1998.

Answer 41

Supports the absorption-addiction model.

This is because they reported that stalkers often have a history of failed sexual relationships and are usually not in sexual relationships at the time of the stalking.

Stalking in such cases is a reaction to social incompetence, social isolation and loneliness.

Failing to form sexual relationships suggests that these individuals are alone, reinforcing the idea that by having more time, people become preoccupied and ‘absorbed’ with a celebrity’s life.

This suggests that the borderline-pathological level of parasocial relationships is related to personal factors.

Question 42

Outline Purcell et al’s study from 2002.

Answer 42

Supports the idea that there are gender differences within explanations for parasocial relationships.

This is because they found that female stalkers were of a nurturing disposition, searching for intimacy and stalking people they physically knew.

This offers a reason as to why celebrity stalking is mainly a male pursuit.

Moreover, it could be seen to challenge models such as the AAM which do not acknowledge gender differences through the processes.

Question 43

Outline MacDougal’s study from 2005.

Answer 43

Supports the ideas of AAM as similar to religion.

This is because they believed the adoration given to dead celebrities by some fans is like that found in influential religions.

This suggests that religious worship and extreme levels of parasocial relationships may fulfil similar needs in some individuals.

Question 44

Outline Maltby et al’s study from 2004.

Answer 44

Supports the absorption-addiction model

This is because they found that those in the entertainment-social category were mentally healthy, but those in borderline-pathological were prone to poor mental and physical health.

This suggests that different parasocial levels are associated with different levels of mental stability, and that the continuing of triggering stressful events can make an individual more delusional.