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A&P cardio system part 2 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the cessation of bleeding?

A

Hemostasis

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2
Q

Excessive blood loss could result in diminished blood volume & pressure in an ever-decreasing cycle until

A

Death

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3
Q

What is the immediate but temporary constriction of a blood vessel ?

A

Vascular Spasm

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4
Q

In vascular spas, what does smooth muscle in vessel walls do?

A

Contract

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5
Q

In vascular spasm, what can it do to the vessel that can stop completely & half flow of blood ?

A

Can close the vessel.

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6
Q

The vascular spasm is initiated by what stimulation?

A

NS stimulation in response to blood vessel damage.

Chemicals released by cells of the damaged vessels.

Chemical released by platelets.

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7
Q

What is the accumulation of platelets that
can seal small breaks in blood vessels?

A

Platelet Plug.
(important step in clot formation)

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8
Q

What can close small tears in smaller vessels & capillaries?

A

Platelet plug

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9
Q

In platelet Plug formation, When a blood vessel is damaged, collagen is exposed and a protein, what is released from endothelial cells?

A

Von Willebrand factor
(vWF) binds exposed collagen

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10
Q

What has surface receptors on their membrane that ALSO binds vWF ?

A

Platelets

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11
Q

In platelet plug formation, 2. after platelets adhere to collagen, they become…?

A

Activated

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12
Q

In platelet plug formation, what do they release in the 2nd step.

A

Release ADP, thromboxanes, & other chemicals via exocytosis

  • ADP & thromboxane bind receptors on surface of other platelets, activating them
  • These platelets are now activated… & release additional

chemicals => creates a cascade=> more platelets

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13
Q

In platelet plug formation, 3. After platelets are activated, they change shape & express fibrinogen receptors that can bind what?

A

Bind fibrinogen, a plasma protein

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14
Q

Fibrinogen forms a bridge between fibrinogen receptors of different platelets which creates ?

A

Creates platelet plug.

Activated platelets also release phospholipids (platelet factor III) and coagulation
factor V, which are imp. in clot formation

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15
Q

Vascular spasms & platelets plugs can only close small tears/ cuts in

A

Vessel walls

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16
Q

What happens in case of a severe damage in blood vessel walls?

A

coagulation results in formation
of a blood clot- a network of fibrin, a threadlike protein fiber that traps blood cells, fluid, & platelets at the injury site.

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17
Q

In coagulation, blood cot formation occurs through activation of

A

Clotting factors, proteins that are normally in the plasma in their inactive state.

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18
Q

Activation is the result of many

A

chemical reactions.

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19
Q

In Coagulation, Some reaction require additional molecules such as Ca2+ and

A

platelet surface molecules

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20
Q

How are clotting factor activated?

A

Extrinsic pathway and Intrinsic pathway.

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21
Q

begins with chemicals outside the blood
Normally triggered by trauma

A

Extrinsic pathway

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22
Q

begins with chemical inside the blood
Triggered by internal damage to vessel wall

A

Intrinsic pathway

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23
Q

2 pathways converge to form common pathway—> forms a

A

a fibrin clot

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24
Q

Common pathway starts with activation of

A

Factor X

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25
Q

formed through combination of
activated Factor X, Factor V,
platelet phospholipids, &
Ca2+ on surface of platelets

A

Prothrombinase

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26
Q

Prothrombinase converts plasma protein
prothrombin to the enzyme …

A

Thrombin

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27
Q

Thrombin converts plasma protein fibrinogen to insoluble protein …

A

Fibrin

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28
Q

forms the fibrous network of the
blood clot

A

Fibrin

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29
Q

is required for formation of many factors like diet, gut microbes

A

Vitamin K

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30
Q

What can reduce Vitamin k?

A

Antibiotics can kill intestinal bacteria also

Reduce #s of clotting factors formed

  • Increase bleeding
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31
Q

is a lipid soluble vitamin

A

Vitamin K

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32
Q

Req’s bile for absorption from

A

large intestine.
* Obstruction of bile flow can decrease Vit K absorption

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33
Q

What does blood contain to prevent uncontrolled formation of clots throughout the circulatory system?

A

Anticoagulants

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34
Q

Clotting factors must exceed a threshold in a localized region to

A

form clot

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35
Q

What happens after forming clot retraction occurs?

A

Platelets contain actin & myosin, which operate similarly to how they contract in muscle

  • Extensions of platelets that bound fibrinogen (information of clot) contract, therefore retracting the clot
  • Serum, plasma without much of the fibrinogen & clotting factors, is squeezed out of clot
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36
Q

Clot retraction

A

Clot retraction pulls edges of damaged vessels closer together

  • Fibroblasts move in & new connective tissue forms
  • Epithelial cells in region divide & repair damaged area
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37
Q

Process of dissolving clot

A

Fibrinolysis

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38
Q

Fibrin broken down by enzyme..?

A

Plasmin

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39
Q

is a mechanism of action for some substances (ex. tPA) used to treat abnormal clot formation

A

Plasmin Activiation

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40
Q

Excessive blood loss can cause chock or death

A

TRUE

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41
Q

is the transfer of blood from one
person to another

A

Transfusion

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42
Q

is the introduction of a fluid other than
blood

A

Infusion

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43
Q

Can be used to increase volume of blood. Often sufficient to prevent shock… RBC
production will follow

A

Infusions

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44
Q

3 main function of lymphatic systems?

A

Fluid balance, lipid absorption, and defense.

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45
Q

lymphatic capillaries collect fluid that has previously left circulation

A

Fluid balance

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46
Q

from digestive tract

A

lipid absorbption

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47
Q

microorganisms/foreign bodies are
filtered from lymph & blood

A

Defense

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48
Q

Clear fluid in lymphatic vessels is called
Contains water & solutes (ions, nutrients, gases,
proteins, hormones, enzymes, waste products)
* Ultimately passes back into circulation

A

Lymph

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49
Q

lymphatic vessels located in lining
of digestive tract that absorb lipids

A

Lacteals

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50
Q

Lymph with absorbed fats, traveling in
lacteals, is called

A

CHyle

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51
Q
  • Recall that fluid moves out
    of capillaries into
    interstitial spaces
  • Not all fluid returns via
    circulatory system
  • Some enters into
    lymphatic capillaries
  • Fluid now called
    lymph
A

lymph

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52
Q

Lymphatic vessels
originate in most bodily
tissues as small, dead-
end

A

Lymphatic capillaries

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53
Q

More permeable than blood capillaires

A

Lymphatic capillaries

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54
Q

Allows fluid to enter capillary
but prohibits it from passing
back into interstitial spaces

A

Lymphatic capillaries

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55
Q

Lymphatic capillaries join to form

A

larger
lymphatic vessels

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56
Q

Inner layer- endothelium surrounded
by elastic membrane

  • Middle layer- smooth muscle cells & elastic fibers
  • Outer layer- thin layer of fibrous
    connective tissue
A

Lymphatic Vessels

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57
Q

drain lymph from head & neck

A

Jugular trunks

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58
Q

Lymphatic vessels converge to form larger
vessels called

A

Lymphatic trunks

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59
Q

drain lymph from upper limbs, superficial thoracic wall, & mammary glands

A

Subclavian trunks

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60
Q

drain lymph from thoracic organs & deep thoracic wall

A

bronchomedoastinal trunks

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61
Q

drains lymph from some abdominal organs (intestines, stomach,
pancreas, spleen, liver)

A

Intestinal Trunk

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62
Q

drain lymph from lower limbs, pelvic & abdominal walls, ovaries/
testes, kidneys, adrenal glands

A

Lumbar Trunks

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63
Q

Lymphatic trunks drain into large veins in the thorax or to larger vessels called

A

lymphatic
ducts which drain into large veins

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64
Q

Largest lymphatic vessel (~38-45 cm) is the

A

Thoracic duct

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65
Q
  • Lymphatic Capillaries
    —>
  • Lymphatic Vessels —>
  • Lymphatic Trunks —>
  • Lymphatic ducts
    —>
  • Large veins
A

FLOW OF LYMPH

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66
Q

filters lymph

A

lymph nodes

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67
Q

Round/Oval/Bean shaped bodies located
along Lymphatic vessels

A

lymph nodes

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68
Q

Lymph moves through vessels via 3 mechanisms

A

Contraction of lymph vessels, contraction of skeletal muscles, and thoracic pressure changes

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69
Q

Valves create “chambers” and smooth muscle contractions move lymph from one to
the next
* Smooth muscle cells include some pacemaker cells, which spontaneously
depolarize

A

Contraction of lymph vessels

70
Q

compresses lymphatic vessels and moves lymph

A

contraction of skeletal muscles

71
Q

During inspiration, pressure in thoracic cavity decreases & lymphatic vessels expand
* Lymph flows into them
* During expiration, pressure in thoracic cavity increases & lymphatic vessels compress
* Lymph moves

A

Thoracic pressure changes

72
Q

Lymphatic tissue cell types

A

Lymphocytes (most)
* B cells & T cells
* Macrophages
* Dendritic Cells (ex. Langerhans cells in skin)
* Reticular cells (type of fibroblast that
produces reticular fibers- provide structural
& functional support)

73
Q

Lymphatic tissue & organs are organized into:

A

Primary lymphatic organs
* Secondary lymphatic tissue & organs

74
Q

Locations
where lymphocytes become
immunocompetent— able to launch an
immune response
* Red bone marrow
* Thymus
* Red bone marrow is location where
lymphocytes originate
* Pre-B cells become
immunocompetent in red bone
marrow
* Pre-T cells become
immunocompetent in thymus

A

Primary lymphatic organs

75
Q

Locations where lymphocytes
interact with each other, other
immune cells, foreign bodies/
microorganisms to produce an
immune response
* Include:
* Lymphatic nodules, incl. tonsils
* Lymph nodes
* Spleen
* Diffuse lymphatic tissue

A

Secondary lymphatic tissues and organs

76
Q

Lymphatic organs & tissues contain very fine collagen fibers called

A

reticular fibers

77
Q

Form a network that filters foreign substances from bodily fluids

A

reticular fibers

78
Q

Lymphatic organs are differentiated from lymphatic tissue by the presence
of a connective tissue capsule
* Organs are encapsulated
* Tissues are non-encapsulated
* Often associated with mucous membranes that line: digestive,
respiratory, urinary, reproductive tracts
* Referred to as Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)
* Well-positioned to intercept microorganisms as they enter body

A

Secondary lymphatic tissue and organs.

79
Q

MALT (Mucosa-
Associated Lymphatic
Tissue) can be further
broken down into

A

NALT- Nasopharynx
* BALT- Bronchi
* SALT- Skin
* GALT- Gut

80
Q

Contains lymphocytes, macrophages, etc.
* No clear boundary
* Located: Deep to mucous membranes, around nodules, within nodes & spleen

A

Diffuse lymphatic tissue

81
Q

Denser, loosely spherical organization of lymphatic tissue
* Located in:
* Loose connective tissue of digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive systems
* Lymph nodes & spleen
* Large groups of nodules are found in specific areas of body including:
* Peyer’s patches in distal small intestine
* Tonsils

A

Lymphatic nodules

82
Q

are groups of lymphatic nodules & diffuse
lymphatic tissue located deep to mucous
membranes within pharynx
* Protect against harmful materials entering nose
& mouth

A

tonsils

83
Q

3 types of tonsils

A

Palatine Tonsils*- oval masses located bilaterally at junction of mouth & pharynx
Pharyngeal Tonsil- collection of nodules near junction of nasal cavity & pharynx
* When enlarged, commonly called adenoids
* Can interfere with breathing
Lingual Tonsils- collection of nodules on posterior surface of tongue

84
Q

small roundish structures located along lymphatic located along lymphatic vessels

A

Lymph nodes

85
Q

what filters lymph?

A

Lymph nodes

86
Q

what removes foreign materials & microorganisms?

A

Lymph nodes

87
Q

Lymphocytes accumulate
& carry out functions& carry out functions

A

true

88
Q

.
throughout body:
** Cervical & head (~70) filter from head & neck
** Axillary (~30) filter from upper limbs & superficial thorax
** Thoracic (~100) filter from thoracic wall & organs
** Abdominopelvic (~230) filter from abdomen& pelvis
** Inguinal & Popliteal (~20) filter from lower limbs &
superficial pelvis
** Categorized as superficial or deep
** Superficial lymph nodes are in the hypodermis.
** Deep lymph nodes are everywhere else
** Most are located near/on blood vessels

A

Lymph nodes

89
Q

What forms a network throughout the node?

A

Reticular fibers that extend from capsule & trabeculae.

90
Q

In some regions, cells are packed between reticular fibers form ?

A

lymphatic tissue

91
Q

in other areas, fibers bridge open spaces are

A

lymphatic sinuses

92
Q

What contains diffuse lymphatic tissue, sinuses, trabeculae & lymphatic nodules

A

outer cortex

93
Q

what contains medullary cords & medullary sinsuses

A

Medulla

94
Q

carry lymph to the node

A

Afferent lymphatic vessels

95
Q

carry lymph away from the node

A

efferent lymphatic vessels

96
Q

Macrophages line lymphatic sinuses remove ?

A

microorganisms. Also, stimulate lymphocytes to undergo cell division.

97
Q

proliferate in cortical
lymphatic nodules, called

A

germinal centers. New lymphocytes are released into lymph, travel through bloodstream &/or lymphatic tissues

98
Q

stores & filters blood, increase in size with infectious disease.
Increased # of immune cells

A

Spleen

99
Q

Functions of spleen

A

Macrophages phagocytize old/damaged RBCs
-Destroying defective RBCs
** Detecting & responding to foreign bodies in blood
** Immune response initiated by specialized lymphocytes
** Acting as a blood reservoir
** During exercise, splenic volume can decrease by 40-50%
** Allows more RBCs to be present in circulation & increase O2 delivery to muscles.

100
Q

In spleen, outer capsule is dense irregular connective tissue and

A

smooth muscle

101
Q

In spleen, connective tissue fibers form

A

trabeculae that travel inward, forming compartments

102
Q

In spleen, compartment contain

A

white pulp- diffuse lymphatic
tissue & lymphatic nodules
** Surrounding arteries in spleen

red pulp - fibrous lymphatic tissue & venous sinuses, containing macrophages & RBCs
-surrounding veins in spleen

103
Q

supplies spleen

A

splenic artery -
Branches enter Hilum & travel to trabeculae
** Arterial branches extend into white pulp
** Arterioles enter lymphatic nodules & form capillaries
** Blood in capillaries flows into red pulp containing
splenic cords (network of fibers) & venous sinuses
(enlarged capillaries)
** Venous sinuses connect to trabecular veins,ultimately forming Splenic Vein
** Most blood flows through the spleen rapidly (sec’s)

104
Q

Spleen often ruptured, can result in severe bleeding, shock, death

A

treated by suturing/use of blood clotting agents/ mesh wrapping.
splenectomy is possible

105
Q

Bilobed gland located in superior mediastinum

A

Thymus

106
Q

In thymus, Each lobe surrounded by thin connective tissue

A

Capsule

107
Q

In thymus, trabeculae travel into thymus from capsule, dividing it into

A

Lobules

108
Q

Site for maturation of T cells and secretes hormone Thymosin

A

Thymus

109
Q

Processes performed by lymphatic system.

A
  1. lymphatic capillaries & vessles remove excess fluid form tissues, forming lymph
  2. Lymph nodes filter lymph: they are sites where lymphocytes respond to infections
  3. Lacteals in small intestine absorbs lipids, forming chyle
  4. Lymph & Chyle pass through
    thoracic duct or lymphatic trunks before entering blood.
  5. Spleen Filters blood & is a site where lymphocytes respond to infections
    6.Lymphocytes (pre-B and pre-T cells) originate from stem cells in bone marrow.
    - Pre-B cells become mature B
    cells in red bone marrow & are release into blood.
    - pre T cells enter blood & migrate thymus.
  6. Pre-t cells increase in # & become mature T cells in the thymus, then release into blood.
  7. B cells and T cells from blood enter & populate all lymphatic tissues
    - can remain in tissues or pass through & return to blood to respond to infections.
    - responsible for much immunity.
110
Q

What is the ability to resist damage from foreign substances? (Microorganisms, harmful chemicals, internal threats)

A

Immunity

111
Q

“nonspecific resistance”, response is the same each time the body encounters “threat”

A

Innate immunity. They are present in all multicellular organisms

112
Q

“specific immunity”, subsequent encounters with a foreign substance are recognized and responded to quicker, because of previous encounter.

A

Adaptive Immunity, unique to vertebrates.

113
Q

What are characteristics of adaptive immunity but not innate immunity?

A

Specificity & memory

114
Q

Ability of adaptive immunity to recognize a particular substance.

A

Specificity

115
Q
  • Innate immunity responds generally against bacteria
  • Adaptive immunity distinguishes among different kinds of bacteria
A

TRUE

116
Q

The ability of adaptive immunity to “remember” previous encounters with a particular substance

A

Memory, response is faster, stronger, longer-lasting

117
Q

Innate immunity overview

A

Includes defenses present at birth, & genetically
determined
* Immune response is standardized- no specificity
* Ex) Each time a bacterial cell is introduced into the body, cells of innate immunity phagocytize it
— same speed & efficiency each time

118
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

Includes body defenses that are acquired throughout a person’s lifetime
* Depends upon previous exposure
* Response is faster & stronger during subsequent exposures
* Immune system “remembers” foreign body from first encounter
* Ex) First encounter: bacteria damage tissues & produce disease symptoms
* Body may take days to destroy them
* Second exposure- bacteria destroyed by adaptive immune
mechanisms before symptoms develop
* Person is said to be immune

119
Q

Main components of innate immunity are?

A
  1. Physical barriers
    * Prevent entrance of microbes & physically remove them
  2. Chemical mediators
    * Act against microbes or active further mechanisms to
    destroy them
  3. Cells involved in phagocytosis & production of chemicals
120
Q

Innate immunity- physical barriers

A

First line of defense- prevent entry.
include: skin, mucous membrane
same structures remove substances from body
Ex) tears, saliva, urine wash substance away

121
Q

Innate immunity - chemical mediators

A

Some chemical mediators are on cell surfaces, where they
kill microbes/prevent their entrance into cell
* Ex) lysozymes
* Other chemical mediators promote inflammation/attract
WBCs/stimulate phagocytosis
* Ex) histamine
* Some chemicals bind to receptors on other cells’ surfaces and stimulate a response (ex. Stimulate cell proliferation &differentiation)

122
Q

Innate immunity- cells- neutrophils

A

Neutrophils: ~126 billion leave blood & pass through walls of
digestive tract/day
* 1st to respond
* enter infected tissue
* release chemical signals- increase inflammatory response &/or
kill microorganisms
* Phagocytize microorganisms
* Usually die after 1 phagocytic event & are eliminated in feces or in pus

123
Q

Innate immunity - cells- macrophages

A

Macrophages: large phagocytic cells
* derived from monocytes
* When monocytes leave blood, they enlarge ~5x (increase
lysosomes & mitochondria)
* Phagocytic- ingest more & larger particles than neutrophils
* Present in many areas- dermis, hypodermis, mucous
membranes, serous membranes, sinuses of lymphatic system
* Go by different names in specific areas (Ex. Microglia in NS, dust cells in lungs, Kupffer cells in liver)

124
Q

Innate immunity- cells - other cells

A

Basophils & Mast Cells- can be activated by innate
immunity or adaptive immunity
* Release chemicals that produce inflammatory
responses
* Eosinophils- secrete enzymes that kill some parasites
* Natural Killer Cells- lymphocytes- general response
to tumor & virus-infected cells (not part of adaptive
immunity)

125
Q

Inflammation

A

can be local or systemic
Local- confined to specific area (redness, swelling)
Systemic- occurs in many parts of body simultaneously
Includes:
* Red bone marrow produces & releases more neutrophils- increased
phagocytosis
* Fever induced by release of chemicals called pyrogens
* Body temp increases- promotes phagocytosis & inhibits growth of
some microorganisms
* In severe cases, increased vascular permeability causes severe decrease in blood volume— > shock, death are possible

126
Q

Adaptive immunity is the ability of lymphocytes to recognize, respond to & “remember” a substance. Substance is called an?

A

Antigen

127
Q

(Adaptive immunity) 2 major types of lymphocytes

A

Bcells & Tcells.

128
Q

Adaptive immunity can be divided into:

A
  1. Antibody-mediated immunity
    * Involves proteins, called antibodies, in body fluids such as plasma, lymph,
    interstitial fluids
    * B cells give rise to cells that produce antibodies
  2. Cell-mediated immunity
    * Involves actions of different types of T cells (Ex. Cytotoxic T cells, Helper T cells,
    regulatory T cells)
129
Q

(Adaptive immunity) - Antigens can be

A

Foreign Antigens- introduced from outside the body
* Ex) parts of microorganisms/viruses, pollen, animal dander or droppings, food or drugs
* May trigger allergic reactions
* Self Antigens- molecules produced by body that stimulate an adaptive immune
response
* May be beneficial
* Ex) tumor antigens
* May be harmful
* Ex) autoimmune diseases result from unwanted destruction of own tissue
* Rheumatoid arthritis - joint tissue is destroyed

130
Q

(Adaptive immunity) - antigen recognition

A

Antigens are large molecules
* Only a small portion of the antigen is recognized by a lymphocyte
* Portion on antigen is an epitope (aka antigenic determinant)
* Each antigen has many epitopes
* Different lymphocytes may respond each
* Lymphocytes have antigen receptors
* Highly specific to an individual epitope on an individual antigen
* Lock & Key

131
Q

(Adaptive immunity) - antigen recognition by t cells

A

Antigen receptors are different for B cells vs T cells
* T cells: Receptors are made of 2 polypeptide chains with:
* a constant region
* a variable region- can bind antigen
* Different variable regions of receptors allow for specificity!

132
Q

(Adaptive immunity) antigen recognition by B cells

A

B cells: Antigen receptors are essentially antibodies
on the surface of B cells
* made of 4 polypeptide chains with:
* 2 identical variable regions- can bind antigen

133
Q

A major role of immune cells

A

is to “ID” cells in the body:
1. Must distinguish between “self” & foreign antigens
2. Must detect if “self-cells” have been compromised
(infected or mutated)

134
Q

MHC Molecules

A

Method of recognition by lymphocytes often involves
interaction with Major histocompatibility complex
(MHC) molecules
MHC molecules:
* Have glycoprotein structure
* Found on plasma membranes of most body cells
* Have a variable region that can bind antigens found
within the cell
* Display these antigens outside the cell plasma
membrane
* Antigens may be produced in the cell - or - processed in the cell
* “Endogenous” if produced in the cell
* “Exogenous” if obtained from outside
the cell (via phagocytosis)

135
Q

2 Classes of MHC Molecules:

A
  • MHC class I molecules
    display endogenous
    antigens- those produced in
    the cell
  • MHC class II molecules
    display exogenous
    antigens- those obtained
    from outside the cell
136
Q

MHC class I molecules

A

display endogenous
antigens (antigens produced in the cell)
* Ex) When viruses infect cells, they “hijack” the
cell’s reproductive equipment to produce viral
proteins
* Viral proteins can be broken down in the cell
* Protein fragments combined with MHC
Class I molecules (Rough ER), processed
by Golgi & transported to plasma
membrane
* Complex bound by receptors on T
cells
* Binding activates T cells —> destroy
cell!!
* Stops viral replication!

137
Q

MHC CLASS I MOLECULES, CONT

A

Process is called “MHC-restricted”— requires both the antigen &
the cell’s own MHC molecule
* Self protein fragments may sometimes (inadvertently) be used to
form MHC-complexes
* Usually don’t trigger immune response because of previous
inactivation of lymphocytes that would recognize self proteins
* refining of lymphocyte populations happens largely during
embryonic development

138
Q

MHC CLASS II MOLECULES

A

MHC class II molecules are found on “antigen-presenting
cells”
* These cells display exogenous antigens (antigens
produced outside the cell) that were previously
phagocytized & broken down
* Ex’s of antigen-presenting cells include B cells,
macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells (ex.
Langerhan’s cells in skin)

139
Q
  1. MHC CLASS II MOLECULES, CONT
A

Antigen-presenting cells endocytose foreign bodies, which are broken down (forming antigens) in vesicles
* Vesicles from Golgi containing MHC Class II molecules combine with vesicles containing antigens
* MHC Class II molecule combines with antigen & are transported to plasma membrane
* Complex is displayed & bound by antigen receptors on T cells
* Process is also MHC-restricted
* However— cell NOT destroyed…

140
Q

MHC CLASS II MOLECULES, CONT.

A
  • Instead, this is a trigger to fight
    the foreign body
  • The specific lymphocyte that
    can recognize the antigen is
    stimulated to divide
  • Production of antibodies
    triggered
  • Antibodies will bind
    foreign antigens &
    destruction of foreign
    bodies with those antigens
    will follow
141
Q

Lymphocytes are derived from stem cells in

A

red bone marrow.
some become pre T-cells –> go to thymus
divide and mature into T cells.
some become pre B cells, stay in red bone marrow. mature into B cells

142
Q

B cells & T cells are members of group of clones

A

Identical to others in the same group.
- each clone response to the same specific antigen.
positive selection for B cells and T cells capable of an immune response.
negative selection against clones that respond to “self” antigens.

143
Q

After formation, B cells and T cells circulate in blood & ?

A

lymphatic tissue.
Before exposure to antigen, # of clones to that antigen is low.
antigens come into contact with lymphocytes & activate them.

144
Q

Activation process caries based on lymphocyte type and antigen type

A

2 general principle of activation:
1. lymphocytes must be able to recognize the antigen
2. After recognition, lymphocytes proliferate & destroy antigen

145
Q

Lymphocyte proliferation beings with recognition of an

A

Antigen.
Recall that if the antigen originated OUTSIDE the cell, it is an exogenous antigen & is presented by a MHC
Class __II_ molecule

146
Q

lymphocyte proliferation:

A
  1. MHC molecule recognition- 1st trigger
    * For MHC Class II molecules, Helper T cells
    are usually the first to recognize the
    antigen
    * (Not pictured) For MHC Class I molecules,
    Cytotoxic T cells are usually the first to
    recognize the antigen
    * 2nd trigger- May require costimulation
    * additional events needed to stimulate
    proliferation of lymphocytes
    * Ex.) chemical release
    * Ex.) binding between lymphocyte &
    presenting cell
147
Q

Lymphocyte proliferation:

A
  1. For MHC Class II molecules— the Helper T
    cell begins to divide
    * Daughter cells can:
  2. Be stimulated by same antigen to
    further divide— more proliferation!
  3. Find & stimulate B cells or Cytotoxic
    T cells
    * B cells & Cytotoxic T cells then
    proliferate: responsible for immune
    response that destroys antigen (more
    to come…)
  4. Become Memory Helper T cells-
    long lived!
    * become active in future encounters
    with same antigen
148
Q

Adaptive immunity can be divide into

A
  1. antibody mediated immunity
    - involves B cells that give rise to cells that produce soluble antibodies that destroy antigen-producing agents
  2. cell mediated immunity
    -involves actions of different types of T cells
149
Q

detail of antibody Mediated

A

After Helper T cell is activated, 1
option is that it finds & stimulates a
B cell
* B cell must bind the same antigen
* B cell divides, daughter cells divide,
etc.
1. Produces many generations of B
cells that recognize the same
antigen
2. Many become plasma cells— cells
that directly make soluble
antibodies
3. Some become Memory B cells—
long lived!
* May become active in future
encounters with the same antigen

150
Q

are proteins produced in response to an antigen

A

antibodies.
Prevalent in plasma
Recall that plasma proteins included globulin proteins.

151
Q

often types of gamma globulin proteins, knwon as “immunoglobulins”

A

Antibodies

152
Q

All have Y shaped structure made of 4
polypeptide chains

A

antibodies.
Have variable region- ends of
heavy & light chains
* Combines with epitope of antigen
* Specificity
* Have constant region-
responsible for action of antibody
(ex. Attachment to specific WBCs)
* Nearly identical in all antibodies
of a particular class

153
Q

effects of antibodies

A

Direct- disables antigen
Indirect- initiates events that
lead to antigen destruction.

154
Q

Effects of antibodies can: Direct

A

Direct:
(a) Bind epitope, which
interferes with antigen
functioning
(b) Bind epitope on 2 different
antigens- preventing
antigen functioning

155
Q

Effects of antibodies “indirect”

A

(c) Binds antigen through variable region; constant
region activates a cascade of proteins called
compliment cascade
* Stimulates inflammatory response: attracts
WBCs, increase vascular permeability, kills
foreign body
d) Binds antigen through variable region; attaches
to Mast cells or Basophils via constant region:
* stimulates cells to release chemicals (ex.
Histamine) that initiate inflammation
(e) Act as opsonins— connect to antigen via
variable region; connects to macrophage via
constant region & triggers phagocytosis

156
Q

Antibody production

A

is different between 1st
exposure & subsequent exposures to an antigen

157
Q

Antibody production

A

First exposure initiates primary response
* Subsequent exposures initiate secondary
response aka memory response

158
Q

Antibody production- primary response

A

The first exposure of a B cell to an antigen (for which it is specific)
initiates the Primary response, including:
* Cell division & differentiation
* Antibody production
* Receptors on surface of B cells are antibodies
* Have same variable region as antibodies later produced by the B
cell
* Primary response takes 3-14 days to produce sufficient antibodies to
disable antigen
* Disease symptoms usually develop

159
Q

Adaptive immunity: cell mediated immunity

A

Antibodies cannot cross plasma membrane
* Cell mediated immunity (other branch of Adaptive Immunity) is effective
against cytoplasmic microorganisms (Ex. Viruses, parasites, cytoplasmic
bacteria)
Cytotoxic T cells:
* Become activated when exposed to their specific antigen
* Antigen is presented by MHC Class I molecules, which helps ID
abnormal or infected cells
* Activation leads to proliferation…

160
Q

Antibody production” secondary response”

A

a Secondary response, including:
* Memory B cells rapidly divide to produce plasma cells
* Produce LOTS of antibodies
* Secondary response:
* Is much quicker: hours-days to start producing antibodies
* Produces more antibodies
* Antigen is usually rapidly destroyed
* Symptoms do not develop; person is “immune”
* Produces more Memory B cells to the antigen
* Memory B cells are the basis of adaptive immunity
* Plasma cells die after destruction of antigen & circulating antibodies are degraded
* BUT some Memory B cells live for years to a lifetime!

161
Q

Adaptive immunity, cell mediated immunity

A

Cytotoxic T cells proliferate and…
1. Produce more Cytotoxic T cells
2. Produce Memory T cells (long lived; serve similar purpose as Memory B
cells)
3. Release chemicals such as cytokines that activate immune functions (ex.
recruit macrophages for phagocytosis)
4. Cause lysis of target cell via chemical signaling:
* Perforin is protein that is released by cytotoxic T cells and forms a channel
in the plasma membrane of the target cell…
* Water enters…
* Lysis!

162
Q

Acquiring adaptive immunity

A

Not present at birth, must be acquired
* 4 types, depending on how immunity is acquired:
* Active immunity- individual is exposed to antigen & individual’s
immune system responds
* Passive immunity- another person or animal develops immunity,
which is transferred to another individual
* Either of the above can also be:
* Natural- occurs through everyday living; not intentional
* Artificial- deliberate introduction of antigen or antibody
* Aka immunization

163
Q

Adaptive immunity “Active natural”

A

Exposure to an antigen (Ex. Microorganism) can
cause immune system to mount an adaptive
immune response
* First exposure: individual is usually symptomatic

164
Q

Adaptive immunity “ active artificial”

A

Antigen is deliberately introduced (vaccine), via injection
* Process is called immunization or vaccination
* Vaccine may include:
* Part of a microorganism
* Dead microorganism
* Live altered microorganism
* Stimulates immune system to mount an adaptive immune response
* BUT does not cause disease symptoms

165
Q

Adaptive immunity “passive natural”

A

Antibodies are transferred from mother to child through placenta or breast milk
* Mother’s lifelong active immunity (natural or artificial) has produced
antibodies
* Some can be transferred to baby, though only last through first few months
post-birth
* Baby’s immune system must take over

166
Q

Adaptive immunity “ passive artificial”

A

Begins with vaccinating an animal (sometimes can be human)
* Antibodies & sometimes cells are removed from animal & injected into human
* Injection called an antiserum
* Contains blood serum (plasma minus clotting factors)
* Provides immediate, but temporary, protection for individual receiving injection
* Ex) rabies, hepatitis, measles, bacterial toxins such as botulism, snake & spider
venom

167
Q

Adaptive immunity “longevity”

A

Longevity of immunity varies:
* Active: can last weeks (ex. common cold)- lifetime (ex.
Polio)
* Individual makes their own memory cells
* Preferred for longevity of immunity
* Passive: not long-lasting
* Person does not make their own memory cells
* Preferred when immediate protection is desired

168
Q

STRUCTURES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

A

External nose- creates chamber for air inspiration
Nasal cavity- chamber for cleaning, warming and humidifying air
Pharynx- common passage for food and air
Larynx- airway, rigid structure keeps passage open
Trachea- common tube to lungs
Bronchi- directs air to each lung
lungs- network of air tubes sacs (alveoli) and capillaries - sites of gas exchange between air & blood

169
Q

Functions of respiratory system

A

Breathing aka pulmonary ventilation- movement of air into and out of the lungs.
Gas exchange- diffusion of gases across membranes.
Pulmonary gas exchange- movement of gases between atmospheric air in lungs & the blood.
Tissue gas exchange- movement of gases between blood & body cells

170
Q

Respiratory tract can be divided into two different ways: upper & lower respiratory tracts

A

Upper respiratory tract - nose to larynx
Lower respiratory tract- trachea through alveoli in lungs

functionally:
conducting zone- strictly performs pulmonary ventilation. includes nose to smallest air tubes in lungs.
Respiratory zone- responsible for pulmonary gas exchange.
Exclusively in lungs- includes alveoli and specialized air tubes

171
Q
A

A&P cardio system part 2 (6 decks)

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