Lecture 3 - German Enlightenment I

Question 1

The phenomenon of Enlightenment is seen differently by philosophers and cultural historians. What is this difference?

Answer 1

Philosophers tend to emphasize the unity of the Enlightenment as a cultural enterprise, whereas cultural historians tend to emphasize local varieties

Question 2

What is the main difference in the nature of the French and German Enlightenment?

Answer 2

France: refusal to strike a compromise with the notion of revealed religion -> the notions of Christianity are false and harmful
Germany: not anti-theological, but focussed on the nature of philosophy and reason itself

Question 3

What is a contributing factor to the Holy Roman Empire’s limited development when compared to France?

Answer 3

The Thirty Years War had devastated German lands

Question 4

In which aspect do the German Princes copy the Kings of France when it comes to their attitude to culture?

Answer 4

The German Princes start using culture as a political instrument

Question 5

Which professions were important in German Princes’ efforts to modernize their states? How is this of importance to the Enlightenment

Answer 5

Lawyers and theologians; these would also be the first to show signs of Enlightenment thought

Question 6

What is considered to be the start of the Aufkärung?

Answer 6

A lecture, held in German and not in Latin, by Christian Thomasius, in 1687

Question 7

What did Christian Thomasius show by giving his lecture in German, rather than in Latin?

Answer 7

That, much like the French, the Germans should use their own language in scientific discourse, and not rely on German

Question 8

What was the disadvantage of the use of Latin as the language of science in the 18th century?

Answer 8

Latin was no longer up to the task of describing the increasingly more complex world in which 18th century people lived

Question 9

What was Christian Thomasius’ profession?

Answer 9

Professor of natural law

Question 10

What did the defeat of natural law theory by Thomas Hobbes mean for the Enlightenment?

Answer 10

It allowed natural law to be replaced by philosophy and science

Question 11

What is a common concervative argument in favour of natural law?

Answer 11

1. If nature is morally charged, then there are things that are by their nature wrong/right
2. God must be the cause of this, since God created the world
3. If something is true time and time again, then God must have intended to be the case
4. This makes it good

Question 12

What is a left-wing use of natural law tradition?

Answer 12

It was helpful in the abolition of slavery -> if there are such things as natural laws, then they must hold for all human beings -> inspires the notion of equality

Question 13

How can natural law tradition be used to argue that European/Christian (moral) standards are not superior? What does this tell us? (2)

Answer 13

Christian Wolff argued that the moral philosophy of the Chinese was equal to that of Christianity, telling us that:

1. You do not eed supernatural revelation in order to be informed about morality
2. There is every reason to assuem that human cultures are very similar: it does not make sense to think about cultures in a hierarchical sense

Question 14

What was different in a theological sense between the starting point of the French and German Enlightenments?

Answer 14

French was a Catholic country, whereas Germany was Lutheran

Question 15

What is the phenomenon of pietism in Lutheranism? (3)

Answer 15

1. Rejection of theological dogmatism -> dogma’s aren’t important, leading a good Christian life is
2. Strong individualism -> emphasis for every individual believer to cultivate its conscience
3. Severe morality

Question 16

Why would rulers of the Holy Roman Empire not be particularly fond of pietism? (2)

Answer 16

1. A people focussed on individual conscience could lead to trouble
2. Pietism had egalitarian tendencies

Question 17

What is Aufklärungstheologie, and what was it based on?

Answer 17

An Enlightenment theology, based on pietism

Question 18

Why did the Aufklärung never experience a radical theological phase?

Answer 18

The leading theologians were very liberal

Question 19

Who are examples of liberal theologians in the Holy Roman Empire? Why were they so liberal with their theology?

Answer 19

Semmler & Spalding; they employed a simple technique: if you want to spread a message, you should adapt it to your audience

Question 20

How does Aufklärungstheologie explain how D’Holbach was seen as old-fashioned in Germany?

Answer 20

Aufklärungstheologie admitted that some sections of the scripture isn’t to be taken literally. D’Holbach did take the text literally and attacked it.

Question 21

Of whom is the liberal theology of Semmler & Spalding somewhat resemblant, and why?

Answer 21

Spinoza, who had already made a clear distinction between philosopy and theology
Philosophy: devoted to the search of truth, its object being nature
Theology: devoted to the object of obedience to the moral law

Question 22

What does the distinction that Spinoza (and Semmler & Spalding) makes between philosophy and theology imply?

Answer 22

Because they are two wholly different fields, they cannot harm one another

Question 23

Who was Godfried Ephraim Lessing?

Answer 23

A German equivalent to Voltaire, with a diverse and influential literary output

Question 24

What is significant about Lessing’s work?

Answer 24

Rather than opposing Christianity with reason, he tries to unite the two, and turn Christianity into a reasonable religion

Question 25

What are Lessing’s two most influential works?

Answer 25

1. Nathan der Weise
2. Die Erziehung des Menschengeslechts

Question 26

What is the main message in Lessing’s Nathan der Weise?

Answer 26

Religious toleration: which of the three monotheistic religions is superior.
Lessing: all three religions are equally capable of inspiring their believers to morally upright behaviour, so we should not be asked to choose

Question 27

What would overshadow Lessing’s work shortly after his passing?

Answer 27

Stories by Jacobi, spreading rumours that Lessing had been a Spinozist

Question 28

What was seen as wrong with Spinozism during Lessing’s lifetime?

Answer 28

Spinoza had created a metaphysics that systematized atheism

Question 29

Why was Jacobi opposed to Enlightenment thinking?

Answer 29

He felt that it overestimated the relevance/power of reason

Question 30

Of what movement is Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi an exponent?

Answer 30

Counter-Enlightenment

Question 31

What would be Jacobi’s most influential work, and why?

Answer 31

Über die Lehre des Spinoza, because it would lead to the Pantheismusstreit

Question 32

What is the Pantheismusstreit?

Answer 32

A polemic on whether Spinoza was an atheist or pantheist

Question 33

What does the Pantheismusstreit signify? How is this related to Spinoza?

Answer 33

It is a demonstration of a uniquely German longing for depth in philosophy and in life in general. Spinoza’s works were seen as uniquely ‘deep’

Question 34

How do the Germans oppose themselves to the French?

Answer 34

Germans see French culture as superficial, whereas theirs is seen as deep. This is inspired by the belief that the French represent the Latins, while the Germans are descendant of the ‘true masters of ancient philosophy’ -> the Greeks

Question 35

In which way does the belief that German (language) is descendant of Greek influence the way in which the Germans see themselves?

Answer 35

After the theory was launched that most European languages are connected, a belief rises that there must have been an ‘original tribe’ that spoke the mother-language: the Arians. The Germans believed themselves to be the ‘Arian cousins’ to the ancient Greeks