1) contextualized input, output & interaction

Question 0

Explain the cognitivist theory of second language acquisition.

Answer 0

• Chomsky
• 1960s
• humans are born with an innate ‘language acquisition device” (LAD) that enables them to process language. The LAD contained abstract principals of language that are universal to all languages (Universal Grammar).
• children do not acquire language rules that are outsie of the boundaries of Universal Grammar.
• issue: did not take into account context

Question 1

Explain the behaviorist theory of second language acquisition.

Answer 1

• Skinner
• 1940s-50s
• people learn through habit formation by repeatedly associating a stimulus with a response; imitation, practice and positive reinforcement were thought to be key components of learning a language

Question 2

Explain the concept of “Universal Grammar.”

Answer 2

• Chomsky, Cognitive Psychology, 1960s

- humans born with Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that enables them to process language

Question 3

Explain “competence” and “performance” from the eyes of cognitive psychologists such as Chomsky.

Answer 3

competence: intuitive knowledge of rules of grammar and syntax and how the linguistic system of a language operates
performance: individual’s ability to produce a language

Question 4

Explain the idea of “communicative competence” and its implications for teachers.

Answer 4

The ability to function in a communicative setting by using not only grammatical knowledge but also gestures and intonation, strategies for making oneself understood, and risk-taking in attempting communication.

Implication for teachers: students need more than grammatical or linguistic knowledge to function in a communicative setting–they need to make meaning of using grammatical forms and knowledge of sociocultural factors that affect communication, knowledge of how to use language to express ideas and intent, and knowledge of strategies of how to compensate for deficiencies in the other competencies.

Question 5

Explain “discourse competence.”

Answer 5

the way in which language elements, such as words and phrases, are arranged into utterances in order to express a coherent idea on a particular topic

Question 6

Explain “sociocultural competence.”

Answer 6

knowledge about context, stylistic appropriateness, nonverbal factors, and cultural background knowledge

Question 7

Explain “linguistic competence”

Answer 7

the ability to make meaning when using form such as morphology, syntax, vocabulary and spelling

Question 8

Explain “actual competence.”

Answer 8

the ability to match linguistic form with a speaker’s intent

Question 9

Explain “strategic competence.”

Answer 9

set of skills that enable people to communicate and compensate for deficiencies in the other competencies

Question 10

Explain the “Input Hypothesis.”

Answer 10

• Krashen, 1980s
• acquisition only occurs when learners receive an optimal quantity of comprehensible input that is interesting, a little beyond their current level of competence ( i + 1 ) and not grammatically sequenced, but understandable using background knowledge, context and other extralinguistic cues such as gestures and intonation.

Question 11

Explain the “acquisition learning hypothesis.”

Answer 11

• Krashen, 1980s
• acquisition is defined as subconscious ‘picking up’ of rules characteristic of the L1 acquisition process
• learning is a conscious focus on knowing and applying rules
• acquisition,not learning, leads to spontaneous, unplanned communication

Question 12

Explain the “Monitor Hypothesis.”

Answer 12

• Krashen, 1980s
• conscious knowledge of rules prompts the internal “monitor” that checks, edits and polishes language output
• ‘monitor’ is only used when the language user has sufficient time, attends to linguistic form, and knows the rule being applied

Question 13

Explain the “Natural Order Hypothesis.”

Answer 13

• Krashen, 1980s
• learners acquire the rules of language in a predictable sequence, in a way that is independent of the oder in which rules may have been taught
• studies have shown learners experience similar stages in development of linguistic structures in spite of first language differences

Question 14

Explain the “affective filter hypothesis.”

Answer 14

• Krashen, 1980s
• language acquisition must take place in an environment where learners are ‘off the defensive’ and the affective filter (anxiety) is low in order for the input to be noticed and reflected upon by the learner.

Question 15

Explain how Krashen’s Monitor Model including:
- acquisition-learning hypothesis
-monitor hypothesis
-natural order hypothesis
-input hypothesis
-affective filter hypothesis
have been influential on classroom instruction

Answer 15

• language classrooms should provide comprehensible input at the ( i + 1 ) level in a low anxiety environment where learners do not have to speak until they are ready to do so
• input should be interesting, relevant, and not grammatically sequenced
• error correction should be minimal in the classroom since it is not useful when the goal is acquisition
• teach vocabulary with pictures rather than lists of English equivalent

Question 16

Why have Krashen’s input theories been strongly criticized?

Answer 16

• his theories have not been empirically tested in language learning environments
• concepts such as ‘comprehensible input’ and the learning-acquisition distinction are not clearly defined or testable
• his model presents a far to simplistic view of the acquisition process
• the use of the ‘acquisition-rich environment’ diminishes the role of the learner by highlighting the role of the teacher as the source of comprehensible input and failing to recognize the function of learner-to-learner talk

Question 17

Explain “binding.”

Answer 17

• Terrell, 1980s
• the cognitive and affective mental process of linking a meaning to a form.
• the concept of binding is what language teachers refer to when they insist that a new word ultimately be associated directly with its meaning
• in a class setting: presenting vocabulary in meaningful groups, providing meaningful input in presenting vocabulary, using visuals and objects, and engaging students in demonstrating comprehension and acquisition of vocabulary before actually producing it orally or in written for

Question 18

Explain “Input Processing.”

Answer 18

• application and extension of Krashen’s input theory
• focus on how learners actually process input to connect grammatical forms with their meanings
• VanPatten and Cadierno (1990s-2000s) argue beginning language learners need structured input activities that enable them to focus on meaning while they pay attention to form before they can use the language to produce output

Question 19

Explain the “processing instruction” approach.

Answer 19

• VanPatten, 2000s
• not a theory, but rather a set of principles about how languages are learned and taught, based on a primary tenet that learners pay attention to meaning before they pay attention to grammatical form.
• also known as ‘attention-orientated instruction’ (Doughty, 2000s)
• learners process the form or structure by means of activities that contain structured input that is manipulated in particular ways to push learners to become dependent on form and structure to get meaning”

Question 20

Explain the “Noticing Hypothesis.”

Answer 20

• Doughty, 2000s
• SLA is largely driven by what learners pay attention to and notice in target language input and what they understand the significance of noticed input to be
• leads into the idea of ‘attention-oriented instruction’ aka ‘processing instruction’

Question 21

Explain how the principles of ‘processing instruction’ have impacted classroom instruction.

Answer 21

• in order to make sense of grammatical forms and be able to use them in communication, learners need to be engaged in attending to meaningful input
• mechanical grammar practice is not beneficial for language acquisition

Question 22

Explain “variability in performance.”

Answer 22

Ellis (1990s-2000s) says use of controlled and automatic processes accounts for 1) the individual variation in the second language learner as different types of knowledge/processes are activated in different communicative contexts, and 2) variation in lang across learners.
Lightbrown (1980s) says this explains ‘U-shaped behavior.”

Question 23

Explain the term “U-Shaped Behavior.”

Answer 23

• Lightbrown (1980s); Segalowitz (2000s)
• sometimes learners are error-free, later they make errors, then yet later they use it correctly again;called “U-shaped” because of how this is mapped out; source is overgeneralization of language rules and creation of rules for the language system

Question 24

What two implications of “Variability of Performance” do teachers need to keep in mind when planning instruction?

Answer 24

1) learners use automatic processes and controlled process in a variety of combinations in their production and comprehension of the target language
2) the ability to verbalize a language rule does not signify that the language learner can use it in communication

Question 25

Explain the term “interlanguage.”

Answer 25

• Selinker (1970s): the developing language of the learner

- continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypothesis about second language

Question 26

Explain the “Interlanguage Theory.”

Answer 26

-Selinker (1970s) - the developing lang of the learner is created by:
1) interference from native lang
2) effect of instruction
3) overgeneralization of target lang rules
4) learning strategies (rote memorization, guessing in context..)
5) communication strategies (circumlocution, gestures…)
Current theories say only when these go to long term memory do language learners modify their interlanguage

Question 27

What is the implication of the Interlanguage Theory for world language teachers?

Answer 27

• helps us to understand the mind of the learner
• the learner’s use of target lang rules reflects a system in development and therefore has errors that occur as a natural part of the acquisition process
• as teacher provide good models of TL input and engage learners in attending to that input, learners alter their interlanguage to incorporate new/more accurate features of the TL

Question 28

According to Long, individuals make their output “comprehensible” by these 3 ways:

Answer 28

1) simplifying input (ie: familiar structures / vocabulary)
2) using linguistic/extralinguistic features (background knowledge, gestures, familiar structures)
3) modifying the interactional structure of the conversation

Question 29

Explain the “Interaction Hypothesis.”

Answer 29

• Long (1980s)
• accounts for the ways in which input is modified and contributes to comprehension and acquisition
• speakers make changes when they ‘negotiate meaning’
• by working towards comprehension, language input is made available for intake, cognitive inspection, and thus acquisition

Question 30

Explain the term “negotiation of meaning.”

Answer 30

exchanges between learners and their interlocutors as they attempt to resolve communication breakdown and to work towards mutual comprehension

Question 31

Explain the implications of the “Interaction Hypothesis” on world language instruction.

Answer 31

• Long, 1980s; negotiation of meaning for lang acquisition
• in classroom: learners must be active conversational participants who interact and negotiate with the type of input they receive in order to acquire langauge

Question 32

Explain the “Output Hypothesis.”

Answer 32

• Swain (1980s-90s): learners need to speak the language to achieve higher levels of language competence
• output 1) helps learners be aware of the gaps in their knowledge, 2) provides opportunity for them to try/modify rules and 3) helps them actively reflect on what the know in the TL
• by repeatedly using the TL in natural communicative situations and focusing on output, learners eventually develop automaticity and move from analyzing what they want to say to being able to say it with ease

Question 33

Explain the difference between “output” and “pushed output.”

Answer 33

Output: speaking the language for the purpose of communicating one’s ideas
Pushed Output: contrived speaking tasks in the classroom that pushes students from what they want to say (vocabulary they need) to how they say it (grammar and syntax to make meaning and context clear)

Question 34

Explain the implications of the “Output Hypothesis” on world language instruction.

Answer 34

• provide opportunities for output that is meaningful, purposeful, and motivational so that students can consolidate what they know about the TL and discover what they need to learn.
• provide age-appropriate and interesting topics that students can explore in discussion and collaborative writing tasks that will produce output that leads students to reflect on the forms they are using, on the appropriateness of their language, and on ways to express what they want to say using what they have learned
• recognize that the struggles they observe in their students as they produce output is actually as sign that learning is taking place!!

Question 35

Explain language learning from the point of view of Piaget.

Answer 35

Piaget, 1970s-80s; cognitive psychologist

• child’s cognitive development and maturity at least in part determine how s/he uses language.
• learning does not affect the course of development since maturation proceeds learning.
• learner must be cognitively/developmentally ready for learning task

Question 36

Explain the sociocultural theory of language learning.

Answer 36

• Vygotsky (1970s); Zone of Proximal Development
• learning proceeds and contributes to development, and the learner’s language performance WITH OTHERS exceeds what the learner is able to do ALONE.
• progress between actual developmental level / potential developmental level

Question 37

Explain the difference between “actual developmental level” and “potential developmental level.”

Answer 37

actual developmental level: what learner can do w/out assistance
potential developmental level: what learner can do w/assistance of adults or more capable peers

Question 38

Explain the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development.” (ZPD)

Answer 38

• Vygotsky (1970s-80s); sociocultural theorist
• distance b/n actual developmental level (determined by independent problem solving) & potential developmental level (determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration w/more capable peers).
• metaphor for how social interaction/assistance are internalized to contribute to language development

Question 39

Explain the term “scaffolding” in relation to the “zone of proximal development.”

Answer 39

• interaction b/n expert and novice in a problem-solving task
• expert enlists interest, simplifies, motivates, highlights/points out; reduces stress; models

Question 40

Explain the term “transformation” in relation to the “zone of proximal development.”

Answer 40

• ZPD occurs in interactive activity where novices & experts work together to solve problems and, in the process, transform their individual knowledge of the task and understanding of each other
• thus, transformation means: assistance can result in learning
• ZPD = activity that is a tool for language learning AND the result

Question 41

Explain the difference between ( i + 1 ) and ZPD.

Answer 41

( i + 1 ) = about language and input: cognitive view that SLA makes use of innate knowledge w/in mind of learner, who functions primarily as an individual in processing comprehensible input
ZPD = about working together, participating in a community and obtaining the assistance needed to continue: sociocultural view that SLA is an activity that happens through collaboration in social settings in which the learner responds to those around him/her (outside-in)

Question 42

Explain what “mediating in the ZPD” means.

Answer 42

learners use tools as a means of mediating b/n themselves and the world, as a way of assisting and surpassing their learning and making sense of the world.  
Tools: texts, visuals, class discourse, TL interaction, direct instruction, teacher assistance, technology, TL itself, collaboration

Question 43

Explain the term “self-talk” or “private speech.”

Answer 43

• type of thinking aloud that facilitates learning because it helps to structure and clarify a task to be done or a problem to be solved
• convergence of thought and language, which acts as an instrument of thought in the proper sense: in seeking and planning the solution of a problem (Vygotsky)

Question 44

Explain the term “language play.”

Answer 44

• Lantolf (late 1990s): mediational tool to experiment grammatical, phonological, and lexical features of the TL.
• producing TL in forms to be used in public, talking out loud, repeating sounds, making songs… creates a ZPD to push beyond current levels

Question 45

Explain the term “mental rehearsal.”

Answer 45

• Form of language play.
• activities such as mental correction of errors, silent repetition, mental practice of grammatical rules, taking notes
• more used by adolescent and adult learners

Question 46

Explain the term “Ludic play.”

Answer 46

• language play for fun / self-amusement (rather than rehearsal)
• sounds, rhyme, rhythm, song
• play with meaning, combine semantics to create imaginary words

Question 47

Explain the difference between sociocultural theory (ZPD) of SLA an the Interaction Hypothesis of SLA.

Answer 47

Interaction Hypothesis: offers learners the input they need to activate internal processes; emphasis on the learner
Sociocultural theory: speaking and writing mediate thinking, which means people gain control over their mental processes as a consequence of internalizing what they/other say

Question 48

Explain the term “interactional competence.”

Answer 48

• the ability to manage discussions in relevant ways
• expands Krashen ( i + 1) to input must also occur within meaningful contexts and be situated within real communication: recurring episodes of purposeful, goal-directed talk

Question 49

What are four characteristics of “real” conversational models?

Answer 49

• establish topic, open-ended (ie: how was your vacation?)
• ellipsis: not repeating info already known (‘ten’ vs ‘it is ten o’clock’)
• context clues, topics, etc help determine meaning of vocab
• expressive reactions/questions/explanations/transitions

Question 50

Explain “conversation analysis” (CA) and implications on WL instruction.

Answer 50

• Hall (1990s-2000s)
• technique for analyzing and understanding classroom interactional patterns as revealed in episodes of actual classroom discourse
• learners need truly interactive environments w/in class if they are to effectively interact outside of class with native speakers

Question 51

Explain the term “motivation” and why it is important to SLA.

Answer 51

direction and magnitude of human behavior
-the choice of a particular action
-the persistence with it
-the effort expended on it
MOST INFLUENTIAL factor in successfully learning a new lang

Question 52

Explain the difference between “instrumental” and “integration” motivation.

Answer 52

• instrumental motivation: learning a lang to get a better job / fulfill an academic requirement
• integrative motivation: learning a lang to fit in w/native speakers; creating ‘real bonds of communication w/another ppl’

Question 53

What are some ‘orientations,’ or aspects of motivation as pertaining to SLA?

Answer 53

• integrative, instrumental, travel, friendship, knowledge, identification, sociocultural, media, whether or not the lang was a requirement, ethnic heritage related, school related
• relevance of course goals; personal beliefs of success/failure; self-reward/eval; teacher feedback/methods/materials/tasks

Question 54

What are Dornyei and Csizer’s Ten Commandments for Motivating Language Learners?

Answer 54

1) set personal example w/your own behavior; 2) create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom; 3) present the tasks properly; 4) develop a good relationship with the learners; 5) increase learners’ linguistic self-confidence; 6) make the language classes interesting; 7) promote learner autonomy; 8) personalize the learning experience; 9) increase the learners goal-orientedness; 10) familiarize learners w/TL culture

Question 55

What are the most important elements of an effective TL classroom?

Answer 55

• NO mechanical practice devoid of meaning
• comprehensible TL input directed towards lg communicative goal
• interactive environment w/variety of social/linguistic/cognitive talk
• opportunity to negotiate meaning and interact communicatively
• purposeful/meaningful/real-life conversations & task
• explicit instruction in lang awareness, autonomy, and meaning
• nonthreatening environment & opportunities to work w/in ZPDs
• opportunities for learners to participate in setting learning agenda