Week 7-Attention

Question 1

What is Attention? (William James
”Principles of Psychology”, 1890)

Answer 1

“Attention is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration, of consciousness are of its
essence [aspects of attention]. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others […]” (i.e., bringing something to conscious awareness focusing on a small snippet of the environment).

Question 2

What is Focused Attention?

Answer 2

Focused attention –> Selective attention (these terms refer to the same thing)

• Prioritise behaviorally relevant targets (sensory inputs) and ignoring irrelevant information (distractors).
• Processing of both internal stimuli (e.g., thoughts, hunger, thirst) and external
  stimuli (e.g., sound).

Question 3

What is Divided Attention?

Answer 3

Divided Attention –> Multi-tasking

• Process different information sources and carry out multiple tasks in the “same” general time (i.e., splitting your attention to multiple things at the same time-multitasking).

Question 4

What are the 2 components of Focused Attention?

Answer 4

1. Focusing of attention – two parallel processes (target/distractors). The brain represents stimuli in the environment as three possible forms:
   a) Target - the stimuli we wish to attend to
   b) Unprocessed stimuli - the stimuli not processed (despite stimulating our retinas)
   c) Distractors - the stimuli which are suppressed
2. Target enhancement and Distractor suppression. Selective attention helps target processing through two ways:
   a) Target Enhancement - cortical representations of targets that are behaviorally relevant are enhanced (i.e., neurons sensitive to target are more active).

b) Distractor Suppression - suppressing the representations of stimuli that are irrelevant.

Question 5

What is Endogenous orienting?

Answer 5

The intentional directing of attention to a
predetermined location

Top-down processing (using models, ideas, and expectations to interpret sensory information): Is this something I have seen before?

Question 6

What is Exogenous orienting?

Answer 6

Directing attention in response to an external stimulus (i.e., attention capture)

Bottom-up processing (taking sensory information and then assembling and integrating it): What am I seeing?

Endo (intention) vs exo (random)

Question 7

What is Overt Attention? (Direct)

Answer 7

• The process of shifting attention from one place to another by moving the eyes
• Allows full processing of the stimulus = foveation
• The movements of the eyes provide observable signals of how attention is
  changing over time

-All to do with visual attention

Question 8

What is Covert Attention? (Subtle)

Answer 8

• Happens when attention is shifted without moving the eyes
• Seeing something out of the corner of the eye
• Attending the target with peripheral vision whilst keeping fixation on a different point (sort of seen as the assessment to determine whether to use overt attention which is quite useful).

-All to do with visual attention

Question 9

What is External Attention? (Chun MM et al., 2011)

Answer 9

The selection and modulation of sensory information e.g., features, objects, spatial locations, sensory mobility and time points.

-Either stimulus-driven (exogenous) OR goal-driven (endogenous)

Question 10

What is Internal Attention? (Chun MM et al., 2011)

Answer 10

The selection, modulation, and maintenance of internally generated information everything within ourselves (e.g., task rules, responses, long term memory, or working memory).

Question 11

What are some problems of Focused Auditory Attention?

Answer 11

McDermott (2009): Two problems listeners face when attending to one voice among many:
1. Sound segregation – putting together sounds – machine-based (which tends to perform poorly).
2. Post-segregation – the direction of attention to the source of the sound –
ignoring anything else (i.e., where is the sound coming from?)

-Auditory segmentation usually harder than visual segmentation (which visual features belong together for objects)

-This is harder because of the considerable overlap of signals from different sound sources in the cochlea
whereas visual objects typically occupy different retinal regions (i.e., overload).

-There is another important issue – when listeners attend to one auditory input, how much processing is there of the unattended input(s)? – lots of proposals

NOTE! Auditory attention is just a cognitive process which enables the listener to focus
selectively on the stimulus of interest and ignoring other information – it is a conscious selection.

Question 12

What is the Dichotic Listening Task? (Cherry, 1953)

Answer 12

-Used to investigate focused attention and the lateralisation of brain functioning within the auditory system.

-Had 2 different auditory stimuli/inputs presented at the same time with headphones worn (played in different ears) where one had to be attended to, and one had to be ignored.

-The one that was attended to, participants were asked to repeat what was said aloud (shadowing).

-It was found that we use different physical differences between the various auditory messages to select the one of interest (little information obtained from uninterested message so receives little processing).

-Change in language=not picked up on

-Change in pitch, sex of voice etc.,=picked up on (shows we can change what is of interest)

-This is a valuable experimental tool to understand attentional processes in both healthy and clinical populations.

-However, we can’t know whether participants switched to the unattended message thus switching attention (therefore not proven attention was paid fully to the attended message)..

NOTE! Unattended information receives minimal processing.

Question 13

What is the Cocktail Party Phenomenon? (Cherry, 1953)

Answer 13

Selective hearing:
-Brain has the ability to focuses on
one auditory stimulus and can filter
out other stimulus.

-Listeners can segregate different stimuli into different streams for example, if you are at a party, in a noisy environment, you can focus on one conversation with a friend
and filter background conversations out (this also is relevant if you hear your name in the background as it demonstrates the attention made to relevant stimuli).

-The difficulties to segregate stimuli in this way is called the cocktail problem.

Question 14

What is Bottleneck in regards to Early and Late Attention?

Answer 14

• Limited capacity for paying attention – conceptualized as bottleneck: restricts
  flow of information.
• Narrower the bottleneck the lower the rate of flow.
• Cannot consciously attend to all of our sensory input at the same time.
• Bottleneck in processing system – limits ability to process 2 or more simultaneous
  inputs-Cocktail party phenomenon permits listeners to process only the desired voice.

Question 15

What is Broadbent’s (1958) Bottleneck – Filter Model of Attention?

Answer 15

-This model is based of the Dichotomy listening task.

1. Both the attended and unattended message are inputs going through the sensory register e.g., the ear.
2. Then they both go through the selective filter where the unattended message is blocked and the attended message is selected based on physical properties (e.g., pitch, loudness etc.,).
3. The attended message goes through to higher level of processing and working memory (i.e., the bottleneck aspect), to be processed and registered.

NOTE! Filter (bottleneck) early in processing – allows information from one input
or message through based on physical characteristics. Other input stays briefly in a
sensory buffer and is rejected unless attended to very quickly.

Question 16

What is Treisman’s Attenuation Model (1964)?

Answer 16

1. The input goes through a sensory buffer where one of the channels gets attenuated and the other passes through to short-term memory.
2. The other channel goes through the attenuator where the meaning is extracted here on after.
3. This information then goes through to the short-term memory.

-Participants were still able to process the meaning of both messages even if the unattended one was at a lower level (would explain the cocktail party effect if someone called your name randomly which you attend to).

NOTE! Treisman’s model agrees with Broadbent’s theory of an early bottleneck filter. The key difference between the two theories is that this model attenuates (reduces the effect of) rather than eliminating the unattended material.

-Treisman’s model accounts for the problems seen in Broadbent’s model HOWEVER, the nature of the attenuation process isn’t define very well.

Question 17

What are the key points between the early model of attention (Broadbent, 1958) VS late model of attention (Triesman, 1964)?

Answer 17

1. Attention operates as a filter at an early
   stage of processing, before the stimulus
   is fully analyzed for meaning (EM) WHEREAS the late selection model proposes that all
   incoming stimuli are processed to some
   extent before selection occurs (LM).
2. Irrelevant information is filtered out at an
   early stage, and only selected information is further processed (EM) WHEREAS Selection of relevant information happens after the stimulus has been analyzed for meaning, closer to the response stage (LM).
3. Stimuli are filtered based on physical
   characteristics (e.g., location, pitch) before semantic processing occurs (EM) WHEREAS Stimuli are not filtered out based on physical characteristics but rather based
   on their relevance to current goals or tasks (LM).
4. All stimuli are processed to some
   degree, but some are attenuated or
   weakened in their processing if they are
   deemed irrelevant (LM).

ESSENTIALLY EM is an immediate action-based model for attention WHEREAS the LM lets the information soak to decide the action.

Question 18

What are the key similarities between the early model of attention (Broadbent, 1958) VS late model of attention (Triesman, 1964)?

Answer 18

1. Both models aim to explain how attention selects information from the
   environment.
2. They both acknowledge the limited
   capacity of attention and the need to
   prioritize certain stimuli over others.
3. Both models recognize the importance of
   filtering out irrelevant information to focus
   on relevant stimuli.

Question 19

What are the key differences between the early model of attention (Broadbent, 1958) VS late model of attention (Triesman, 1964)?

Answer 19

1. The main point of divergence lies in the
   timing of selection: early selection
   models propose that selection occurs at
   an early stage of processing, while late
   selection models propose that selection
   occurs at a later stage.
2. Early selection models emphasize the
   role of physical characteristics in
   determining what is attended to, whereas
   late selection models focus more on
   semantic or contextual factors.
   Both models recognize the importance of
   filtering out irrelevant information to focus
   on relevant stimuli.
3. Early selection models suggest that
   unattended stimuli are not processed
   beyond basic sensory analysis, whereas
   late selection models propose that all
   stimuli are processed to some extent
   before selection occurs.

Question 20

What are the 3 theories proposed which answers: How do we direct attention in the
space and select the information that is relevant for us?

Answer 20

Theory 1: Spotlight Theory  As humans, is our attention considered to be like a spotlight, illuminating a considerably small area at a time?

Theory 2: Zoom Lens  As humans, is our attention like a zoom lens – purposely increasing or decreasing the area of focal attention?

Theory 3: Split Focal attention  Can we split our focal attention to more areas of space not adjacent to each other (i.e., multiple spotlights)

Question 21

What is the Spotlight Theory? – Model of attention (Posner, 1980)

Answer 21

• Focused attention – like a spotlight beam that illuminates a particular area of the
  space (can be both overt and covert attention).
• Small amount is processed outside the beam and it can rapidly be redirected
  towards any other location or object.
• Focus visual attention to a location by using a cue (i.e., cueing paradigm).
• Measure time to identify the target item when the observer does not know where
  item will appear and when the observer does know where the item will appear.

Question 22

What is the Cueing Paradigm? (Posner & Cohen, 1984)

Answer 22

-There’s two placeholders and a fixation point in the middle (which participants initially look at).

-The arrow is the cue – its purpose is to direct the focus of attention to one of
the two boxes.

-If the target appears at the cued location =
VALID LOCATION. Expected that the reaction time to say whether it is red or blue star will be FASTER.

-If the target appears at the non-cued location = INVALID LOCATION Expected that the reaction time will be SLOWER.

Question 23

What is the Zoom Lens Theory? – Model of Attention (Eriksen & St James, 1986)

Answer 23

In contrast to Spotlight theory, zoom lens argues that attention is more flexible. This theory proposes that visual attention resembles a zoom lens, where we can purposefully increase or decrease the area of focal attention just like a zoom lens can be adjusted to change the visual area it covers.

Question 24

What is the Split Attention Model?
(Awh & Pashler, 2000)

Answer 24

• Attention can be directed to two or more locations which are not adjacent to one
  another.
• More flexible strategy (least flexible is spotlight).
• The brain would save resources because it would avoid to process irrelevant and
  unnecessary areas of visual space in between two relevant areas.

Question 25

What is a summary of the spotlight theory?

Answer 25

Overview: The spotlight theory proposes that attention functions like a spotlight, selectively illuminating specific areas of focus within the visual field. It suggests that attention is a limited resource that can only illuminate a single point or region at a time.

Characteristics: Attention is likened to a focused beam, highlighting certain stimuli while leaving others in the periphery.

Key Concept: Attentional resources are allocated to specific locations or objects, enhancing processing for attended stimuli.

Question 26

What is a summary of the ZOOM LENS THEORY?

Answer 26

Overview: The zoom lens theory extends the spotlight metaphor, suggesting that attention can vary in the width of its focus, analogous to a zoom lens on a camera. It proposes that attention can narrow to focus on fine details or broaden to encompass a wider field of stimuli.

Characteristics: Attentional focus can dynamically adjust, zooming in or out depending on task demands or stimulus salience. It allows for flexible allocation of attention, enabling efficient processing of both fine-grained details and broader contexts.

Key Concept: Attentional flexibility allows for adaptive allocation of resources based on the characteristics of the stimuli and the goals of the observer.

Question 27

What is a summary of the SPLIT FOCAL THEORY?

Answer 27

Overview: The split focal theory suggests that attention can be divided among multiple stimuli or regions simultaneously. Unlike the spotlight theory, which implies a single focus point, and the zoom lens
theory, which suggests a flexible focus width, the split focal theory posits that attention can be spread across several points or regions concurrently.

Characteristics: Attention can be distributed across multiple locations or objects simultaneously, without the need to prioritize a single focus point. It accounts
for situations where individuals need to monitor or process information from multiple sources simultaneously.

Key Concept: Attentional resources are not limited to a single locus but can be divided to facilitate parallel processing of multiple stimuli or tasks.

Question 28

What are some similarities between the 3 visual attention theories?

Answer 28

1. All three theories: Address the allocation of attentional resources within the visual field.
2. Spotlight and Zoom Lens: Emphasize the selective nature of attention, focusing on specific stimuli or regions.
3. Zoom Lens and Split Focal: Acknowledge the flexibility of attentional focus, either in terms of width (zoom lens) or distribution (split focal).
4. Spotlight and Split Focal: Highlight the role of attention in prioritizing certain information over others.

Question 29

What are some differences between the 3 visual attention theories?

Answer 29

1. Spotlight vs. Zoom Lens: Spotlight theory suggests a fixed focus point, while zoom lens theory proposes a flexible focus width.
2. Zoom Lens vs. Split Focal: Zoom lens theory focuses on adjusting the width of attentional focus, while split focal theory suggests attention can be divided among multiple points or regions.
3. Spotlight vs. Split Focal: Spotlight theory implies attention is concentrated at a single point, while split focal theory suggests attention can be distributed across multiple points simultaneously.

Question 30

What is Space vs Object based attention?

Answer 30

• When attention is organized around spatial locations in the visual field = SPACE-BASED ATTENTION
• When attention is directed to specific
  objects = OBJECT BASED ATTENTION
• When attention is being organized
  around only particular features of an
  object rather than the whole object or
  region of space = FEATURE BASED ATTENTION
• The most prevalent ones are the
  latter ones because attention is
  typically directed to specific targets /
  objects

Question 31

What is Dual-task performance?

Answer 31

Multi-tasking “refers to the ability to co-ordinate the completion of several tasks to
achieve an overall goal” (MacPherson, 2018, p. 314).

Does multi-tasking have beneficial or detrimental effects on attention and cognitive control?

Factors determining if TWO tasks can be multitasked:
– Structure
– Similarity (more cognitive control/difficulty if similar)
– Resource demand (doing a new task=greater cognitive control/resource demand)
– Resource allocation / task management (

Question 32

What is Serial vs Parallel processing in divided attention?

Answer 32

• Potentially two attentional mechanisms involved in multi-tasking

1. Serial processing - serial processing involves the sequential execution of tasks or operations, one after another.
2. Parallel processing - Parallel processing involves the simultaneous execution of multiple tasks or operations

Question 33

What is Parallel Processing?

Answer 33

• Tasks are divided into smaller subtasks, which are processed concurrently by different components or units.
• Each subtask operates independently of the others, and results are combined or integrated at later stages.
• Parallel processing can significantly speed up overall processing time, as multiple operations are carried out simultaneously.

Example: In the brain, visual processing often involves parallel pathways, such as the dorsal and ventral streams, which process different aspects of visual information concurrently.

Question 34

What is Serial processing?

Answer 34

• Tasks are processed one at a time, with each subsequent task depending on the completion of the previous one.
• Resources are allocated sequentially, and tasks are completed in a predetermined order.
• Serial processing tends to be slower than parallel processing, as tasks are completed one after another rather than simultaneously.

Example: Reading a book is an example of serial processing, where words are processed one after another in a linear sequence.

Question 35

What are the similarities between parallel processing and serial processing?

Answer 35

1. Concurrency: Parallel processing involves
   simultaneous execution of tasks, while serial processing involves sequential execution.
2. Speed: Parallel processing is generally faster
   than serial processing, as multiple tasks are
   processed concurrently.
3. Resource Allocation: Parallel processing
   requires multiple resources operating in parallel, while serial processing may utilize fewer resources sequentially.
4. Complexity: Parallel processing can handle more complex tasks by distributing the workload across multiple processing units, while serial processing may struggle with complex tasks due to its linear nature.

Question 36

What are the differences between parallel processing and serial processing?

Answer 36

1. Independence: In parallel processing, tasks are often independent of each other, whereas in serial processing, tasks are dependent on the completion of previous tasks.
2. Resource Utilization: Parallel processing
   utilizes resources concurrently, while serial
   processing utilizes resources sequentially.
3. Flexibility: Parallel processing allows for
   greater flexibility in task execution, as tasks can be performed simultaneously, whereas serial processing follows a predetermined order, limiting flexibility.

Question 37

What is automatic and controlled processing?

Answer 37

-“Automatic processes are those whose operation is unconscious, unintentional, uncontrollable, and efficient, while controlled processes are those whose operation is conscious, intentional, controllable, and inefficient” (Spunt, 2015).

-Automaticity is the ability to do things without occupying the mind with low
level details required allowing it to become an automatic response, pattern or habit - Learning, repetition and practice are key to automaticity.

-Cognitive components are independently active due to resources being freed up.

Question 38

What is the Criteria for Automaticity? (Postmer & Synder, 1974)

Answer 38

• It should be unintentional
• It should occur unconsciously
• It should occur without depleting additional resources – ongoing cognitive
  activities

Question 39

Compare controlled vs automatic processing

Answer 39

-Requires attention (C) VS Does not require attention (A).

-Limited Capacity (usually focus on one thing, find it difficult in more than one thing / multitask and divide attention) (C) VS
Unlimited Capacity Doesn’t take away limited capacity (A).

-Rather slow (C) VS Fast (A)

-Effortful (C) VS Effortless (A)

-Conscious (Is aware) - processing we
are aware of (C) VS Outside awareness – outside of our awareness, saying thank you without realizing – result of automatic process may be aware but moment of
processing is yes respond (A).

-Controllable (C) VS Uncontrollable (A).

-Flexible (C) VS Inflexible (A).

NOTE! Two types of mental processing, unclear if independent or gradient. Some
theories classify processing as independently controlled or automatic, other theories argue for a gradual transition between the two.