L9- Blue foods

Question 1

what is the global context of ocean and food security

Answer 1

-40% of people live within 100km to coast
- fish and other marine organisms have been an important part of out diet for millennia
- traditionally these have come from wild capture fisheries, but increasingly we farm aquatic species too
- debates over food security are often strongly biased towards terrestrial agriculuture
-what role can “blue food” from our oceans play in delivering food security

Question 2

what is the global trend in fish as foods

Answer 2

consumption of fish increased almost twice as fast as the human population from 1961-2019

this growth of ~3% a yr is higher than that of all other animal protein foods, which increased by 2.1% per yr

globally, annual per capita fish consumption grew from 9kg in 1961 to 20.2kg in 2020

in low income food deficit countries (LIFDCs), fish consumption increased from 4kg in 1961 to 9.3kg in 2017

Question 3

is the same aquatic food ate globally

Answer 3

no, people in different parts of the world eat different kinds of aquatic foods, in different quantities

for example oceania represent 1% of the global population but eat the most aquatic food

per capita is different, where small island states depend soo much on aquatic food

Question 4

what is global trend for fish as a product

Answer 4

2020 11% of world fish production was used for non-food products

81% of this was used to produce fishmeal and fish oil, which is mainly used as animal feed

• the proportion of fish used for non-food purposes has declined steadily from 33% in 1960 to 11% today
• around 12-30% of fishmeal and fish oil is now produced from the by-products of fish processing, which previously used to be discarded
• fishmeal and fish oil is mainly produced from small pelagic fish
• it is used mainly for food in aquaculture, which is booming

demand therefore outstrips supply from well managed fisheries

in west africa an increasing amount of catches are reduced into fishmeal for export purposes, rather than used for human consumption, this increases the pressure on fishery resources and impacts food security and livlihoods

Question 4

what is effect as fish as livelihood

Answer 4

around 60m people are employed in capture fisheries (39m) or aquaculture workers

most workers are in Asia (84%), followed by africa and the Americas, low level in Europe and Oceania

women account for 21% of the total directly employed in primary aquaculture and capture fisheries

in post-harvest operations, women make up around 50% of the workforce, upto 85% in some parts

Question 5

what is global trend of fish as a commodity

Answer 5

in 2020 60m (33% of total fisheries and aquaculture production) were traded internationally

• in 1976 work 7.8 billion, in 2018 164 billion ( this decreased with covid)

fish and fishery products are some of the most traded food commodities in the world, approx equal to all terrestrial meats
- this trade is asymmetric - fish tend to flow from lower income to higher income
markets of higher income countries still dominate fish imports, constituting 75% of the global value of aquatic product imports in 2020

• oceania, lower income countries of Asia, Latin America and the caribbean remain net fish exporters

europe and north america are characterised by a fish trade deficit, importing more than they export

• africa is a net importer in quantity, but a net exporter in terms of value, african fish imports, mainly affordable small pelagic fish, represent an important source of nutrition

Question 5

do we farm or catch

Answer 5

mostly farm more then catch aquatic algae, freshwater fish, molluscs , farming of marine fishes is increasing but is unlikely to overtake marine capture production in the future

Question 5

whats the rise of aquaculture

Answer 5

world agriculture production was 87.5 mt of animals and 35.1 mt of aqautic algae in 2020

world agriculture production of farmed aquatic animals grew on average at 6.7% per yr

world aquaculture was 49% of global fisheries production in 2020

aquaculture accounted for 56% of fish for direct huma consumption

the est farm gate value of the aquaculture sector in 2020 was 282 billion

most animal aquaculture 62% is in inland water, most of this 90% freshwater finfish

the 33mt of marine and coastal aquaculture is mostly 53% shelled molluscs, fish 25% and crustaceans 21%

aquaculture is highly diverse, 494 individual species that are farmed

Question 6

what marine things do we farm

Answer 6

fish farming is dominated by asia, which has produced 89% of the global total this century

every yr since 1991, china has produced more farmed aquatic food than the rest of the world combined

aquaculture is increasing everywhere in the world, much faster than the capture fisheries production

Question 7

what is blue food and nutrients from fish

Answer 7

in 2019 fish consumption accounted for 17% of the global populations intake of animal proteins and 7% of all proteins consumed

fish provided more then 3.3. billion people with 20% of their average per capita intake of animal protein

this reaches 50% of more in countries such as bangladesh, cambodia, gambia, ghana, Indonesia, sierra leone, sri lanka and several small island developing states

in general, aquatic foods make up a greater share of animal protein intake in low -income countries than in high income countries

Question 8

how does blue food contribute beyond claories and protein

Answer 8

fish is an important source of
-omega-3 fatty acids
-essential amino acids
- vitamins (particularly a,b,d)
- minerals ( iron, ca, zinc)

even small quantities of fish can be valuable source for healthy dietary diversification

Question 9

fish for health in LIC

Answer 9

in LIFDCs low income food deficit countries and least developed countries populations may be over dependent on a relatively narrow selection of pant based staple foods lacking in key nutrients

nearly 2 billion people lack key micronutrients (iron and zinc), and these account for 1m premature deaths annually

even small quantities of fish can directly reduce the prevalence of malnutrition and correct imbalanced high calorie and low micronutrient diets

consumption of the entire fish of small species can be particularly valuable as their head, bones and skin are rich in micronutrients

fish consumption contribute to cognitive development during the most crucial stages of unborn or young children growth

aquatic animal source foods improve human health
- reduce micronutrient deficiencies that can lead to disease

• they provide omega-3 fatty acids which may reduce the risk of hearth disease and promote brain and eye health
• they can displace the consumption of less-healthy red and processed meats that can cause adverse health outcomes

Question 10

do different fish have different nutrient compositions

Answer 10

yes

tropical fish are higher in calcium, iron and zinc

smaller fish are high in ca, zinc and omega 3 fatty acid

pelagic feeders (eat plankton) and cold water fish (greater need for energy storage) are higher in omega 3

you can use this to close the nutrient gap, high conc of iron and zinc are found in species caught in a number of african and asian countries that are at greatest risk of deficiencies in these nutrients

calcium conc are high in species caught in caribbean region, where there is a high prevalence of deficiency

dietary risk of iron deficiency in namibia is severe, 9% of fish caught in the EEZ of nambia would be equivalent to the dietary iron requirements for entire coastal population

dietary risk of calcium deficiency in kiribati is severe (82%), just 1% of fish caught in EEZ of kiribati is equivalent to the calcium requirements for all children less then 5yr

So in many areas where the risk of nutrient deficiency is high, a single protion (100g) of an aaverage fish could provide a significant proportion of recommmeded dietary allowance

the availability of high conc of key nutrients in areas that are at risk of nutrient deficiencies suggests that marine gisheries could be critical in helping close nutrient gaps
small scale fisheries play huge role in delivering these benefits

Question 11

what is therole of small scale fisheries

Answer 11

small scale fisheries are those using boats, usually for subsistence or artisinal purposes

of the worlds 4.1 m fishing vessels, 1.6m are not motorised and a further 2m are small motorised vessels

small scale fisheries dominates global fisheries in terms of vessels and employment in LICs

more then 20 nations across africa pacific caribbean and asia obtain more then 30% of their nutrient supply from small scale fisheries catch
given their key role nutrition, sustainable exploitation within small scale fisheries, better management at the local level needs to be combined with global policies to ensure that nutrient rich fish are available to people where undernutrition is prevalent

Question 12

what is global flow of nutrients

Answer 12

complex fisheries supply chains lead to broad-scale distribution of fish from the site of capture

this is driven mainly by foreign fishing fleets, with international trade also contributing substantially

this exacerbates nutrition insecurity, moving fish away from source nations that are vulnerable to nutrient deficiency

Question 13

how can blue foods aid sustianability of food proudction

Answer 13

global food system is responsible for 1/4 of all GHG emissions

agriculture occupies half of all ice-free land and is responsible for 3/4 of global water use

blue foods present an uppurtinity to improve nutrition with lower environmental burdens

they can help adress sustianable development goals
- improve nutrition goal 2
- ensure sustainable consumption and production goal 12
sustainably use marine resource goal 14

Question 14

is all blue food equal

Answer 14

gephart et al 2021
- draw on data from around 1,700 aquaculture farms and 1000 fisheries records around the world
- 23 species encompass >70%of global food production
- at a food-system level, shifting to more no-animal alternatives remains an effective route to sustainability
- but low-strssor blue foods may represent an appealing and relatively sustainable alternative for many consumers

• fed aquaculture emissions result primarily from feeds (>70% for most groups)
• fuel use drives capture fisheries emissions
  -farmed seaweeds and bivalves generate the lowest emissions, followed by small pelagic capture fisheries
• flatfish and crustacean fisheries produce the highest
• farmed bivalves and shrimp produce lower average emissions than their capture counterparts
• salmon and trout are similar whether farmed or fished

Question 15

how can capture fisheries be improved

Answer 15

by reducing fuel represents the primary stressor improvement oppurtunity
-increased stock biomass could reduce fuel use per tonne of fish landed; a 13% catch increase with 56% if the effort would result in a 50% reduction in GHG emissions

• prioritising low-fuel gears within each fishery can reduce GHG emissions by 4-61% and could also benefit biodiversity
• transitioning fishing fleets to low-emission technologies could be effective but needs transformations beyond traditional fishery management

Question 16

how can aquaculture be improved

Answer 16

• most impacts from aquaculture come from the need to feed farmed species
  -fed aquaculture production has outpaced that of the non-fed sub-sector in the world aquaculture
  -contribution of non-fed sub-sector in world aquaculture
  the contribution of non-fed aquaculture in total farmed aquatic animal production declined from 44% in 2000, to 28% in 2020

non-fed aquaculture is ~2/3 aquatic invertebrates (mainly marine bivalve molluscs), and 1/3 filter-feeding finfish like carp

fed aquaculture (often of carnivorous fish) often depends on wild caught fish to produce fish meal

sometimes terrestrial crops are used- these account for most of the land use footprint of aquaculture

this can lead to trade offs- farmed trout and salmon have low water-use, because of lower crop use and higher use of fishmeal and fish oil

fishmeal is a proteinaceous flour obtained by milling and drying of fish or fish parts
fish oil is obtained through the pressing of cooked fish and subsequent centrifugation of the liquid obtained
- both can be produced from whole fish, fish trimmings or other fish processing by-products
-small pelagic fish are used to produce fish meal or oil

• around 25-35% of fishmeal and fish oilis now produced from fish by-products
  this share will need to increase as no major increases in landings of small palegics is expected
  fishmeal from by-products is lower in protein, but richer in minerals and amino acids than meal from the whole fish

fishmeal and fish oil are still important ingredients for farmed fish and major sources of omega-3 fatty acids

supplementing by-products with fishmeal and fish oil at critical life stages could be an effective way forward

some farmed species can actively the environmental impacts of aquaculture filter feeding marine bi valves, as well as seaweeds, are extractive species

extractive species account for nearly 60% of the world aquaculture production

Question 17

how else can aquaculture be improved

Answer 17

shifting relative proportions of crop- and fish-derived feeds results in negligible changes in stressors
replacing fish meal and fish oil with fishery by-products has a relatively small effect but can improve system-wide performance and reduce waste switching to deforestation-free soy and crops reduced GHG emissions of aquaculture by 5-50%
novel aquaculture feeds may improve feed quality and reduce forage fish demand
overall, reductions by aquaculture producers will only help to meet emissions targets if broader food sector commitments are made

there are many promising technological innovations in aquaculture
less eye catching interventions may represent greater potential for rapid and substantial impact reductions

many innovations are beyond the reach of smallholder producers of low-value species

we therefore need public research and development as well as technology transfer

Question 18

how to reduce blue food waste

Answer 18

35% of global fisheries harvest is either lost or waisted

reducing fish loss and waste requires appropriate policies, regulatory framework, capacity building, services and infrastructure

these will vary by region most waste is at the consumption stage in richer countries but result from inadequate preservation in poorer countries
reducing fish loss and waste can reduce pressure on fish stocks and contribute to improbing resource sustainabilityas well as food security

Question 19

what is the impacts on globalisation

Answer 19

globalised supply chains mean a fish may be harvested in one country, processed in another and consumed in yet another

the choices available to an individual consumer have multiplied at the global level they are increasingly similar among countries and regions

major supply shocks affecting key species may thus impact people everywhere

increasing consumer awareness of eg sustainabilty is driving demand for traceability systems and certification schemes of a growing range of fish and fish products

Question 20

how can future demand be met

Answer 20

global demand for blue food has doubled since 2000
- increasing per capita consumption and increasing population combine to drive increasing demand
- in sub-saharan africa increased demand is driven largely by population growth

in east asia (mainly china) economic growth was stronger and population growth relatively weak, so demand was drive by consumption rate

global demand for blue food will double again by 2050
consumer concerns over human health, sustainability, food safety, convenience, and the emergence of plant-based meat subsitutes may all impact this growth

• climate change may also lead to increases in seafood prices impacting fish consumers
• low income consumers typically respond to rising prices by decreasing overall food consumption and shifting from nutrient rich to energy rich foods

Question 21

Where is the blue food

Answer 21

the EAT- lancet commission report detailed a strategy to transform the global food system into one that could nourish the world without exceeding planetary boundaries

however, the report focused predominantly on terrestrial food production, funding for aquatic food sector from the world bank and regional development banks lack targeted support

Question 22

What did koehn et al find when asking
- do fisheries and aquaculture plicies have explicit nutrition and public health objectives

• do public health nutrition recognise the contribution of aquatic foods

Answer 22

77/158 national fisheries policies identified nutrition as a key objective in the sector
68 of 165 public health nutrition policies identified the importance of fish and shellfish consumption as key objectives

public health nutrition policies tended to briefly mention fish and shellfish but typically not include thein into their objectives

59% of national diet or nutrition plans had no or low inclusion of aquatic food keywords

51% of fisheries policies had no or low inclusion of food and nutrition security keywords

the low level of inclusion across policies indicated there is a low level of coherence or joint planning, between these sectors policy documents

more recent policies are associated with improved coherence amoing sectors, this is true of both national fisheries policies and national policies for food security nutrition and health

the probability of high inclusion- including aquatic foods not only in overall onjectives but also in specific policy action items have increased

the presence of development partners in a country increased cross-sector integration of its fisheries and public health and nutrition policies

countries with stronger governance recogonise the nutritional value of fish and seek to align fisheries and aquaculture sectors to meet food and nutrition security goals

• more coherent policies among sectors that establish clear oathways linking fish production and distribution of aquatic foods to food and nutrition security

continuing to manage fish soley for revenues, jobs and conservation will not ensure that fish reaches people most vulnerable to malnutrition

environmentally sustainable diets need to recognise the interactions between marine and terrestrial production

effective redistribution of foods to areas of deficit, together with waste reduction, and responsible consumptiona nd production are needed to ensure equitable food security and nutrition

developing links between the provision of enviromentally sustainable diets and achieving nutriotinal and human health policies is becoming increasingly important