ANA Exam 4 Study Guide Flashcards
What are hormones?
Chemical messengers secreted into the bloodstream which stimulate physiological responses in distant organs
Once a hormone enters blood stream, it goes wherever the blood goes, only receptors for that hormone will pick it up
Most familiar hormone source is the endocrine glands
What are the endocrine glands?
A ductless gland that secretes hormones into the bloodstream
High density of blood capillaries (fenestrated capillaries), which pick up/ carry away hormones
I.e. pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands and more
Define the endocrine system.
A system of internal chemical communication composed of all endocrine glands and the hormone-secreting cells found in other tissues and organs
Neuroendocrine cells: Act like neurons but release their secretions (like oxytocin)
What are target cells?
A cell acted upon by a nerve fiber or by a chemical messenger such as a hormone.
The target organ of corticotropin-releasing hormone, and oxytocin.
CRH: Targets adrenal cortex (growth of adrenal cortex, secretion of glucocorticoids)
Oxytocin: Uterus, mammary glands, brain (labor contractions, milk release, possibly involved in ejaculation, sperm transport in female, sexual affection, and parent-offspring bonding)
The location and anatomy of the adrenal glands and their position to the rest of endocrine glands.
The adrenal glands are attached to the superior aspect of each kidney.
2 distinct portions: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.
Adrenal medulla is essentially a sympathetic ganglion consisting of chromaffin cells, modified neurons devoid of dendrites and axons. The medulla responds to sympathetic stimulation by secreting catecholamines (a subgroup of monoamines), including epinephrine, norepinephrine, and a small amount of dopamine. The secretion occurs in response to stress.
Adrenal cortex synthesizes more than 31 corticosteroids (corticoids). All are synthesized from cholesterol.
The cortex has three tissue layers:
1. Zona glomerulosa
- The outermost, thin layer of the cortex consists of cells arranged in small, round clusters. Mineralocorticoids secreted by the zona glomerulosa control electrolyte balance. The main mineralocorticoid is aldosterone. Aldosterone targets kidney cells and causes sodium retention and potassium excretion, which affects blood volume and blood pressure.
2. Zona fasciculata
- In this thick middle layer, cells called spongiocytes are arranged in parallel cords perpendicular to the adrenal surface. The zona fasciculata produces glucocorticoids in response to ACTH. Glucocorticoids stimulate fat and protein catabolism, and release glucose and fatty acids to the blood. The principal glucocorticoid is cortisol, which helps the body respond to stress and tissue damage.
3. Zona reticularis
- Weak androgens and small amounts of estrogen are secreted by the zona
What hormones have effect on blood pressure?
Angiotensin II, natriuretic peptides, Aldosterone, Vasopressin/ADH (antidiuretic hormone), Norepi/Epi
The location and anatomy of the thymus and its
position to the rest of endocrine glands.
Located in the mediastinum superior to the heart and is larger in children than in adults.
It plays a role in the endocrine, lymphatic, and immune systems.
It is the site of maturation for white blood cells, the T lymphocytes (T for thymus) that play a critical role in immune response.
Secretes a number of hormones that stimulate the development of other lymph organs and regulate the development and activity of T lymphocytes.
What glands regressed after childhood? And hormones they released.
Adrenal: epinephrine, norepi, aldosterone, cortisol, corticosterone, androgens
Thymus: thymopoietin, thymosin, thymulin to T lymphocytes
Pineal gland: releases melatonin to the brain
The origin and function of insulin.
Released by beta/insulin cells in the pancreatic islets
Insulin is secreted during and immediately after a meal in response to rising blood-borne nutrients levels (glucose and amino acids)
Stimulates most body tissues to absorb these nutrients and store or metabolize them
Lowers blood glucose levels, promotes glycogen, fat, and protein synthesis
What are secreted by adrenal cortex, pineal gland, parathyroid gland, and neurohypophysis?
Adrenal cortex: Aldosterone, cortisol, corticosterone, androgens
Pineal gland:
Melatonin
Parathyroid gland:
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary):
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), Oxytocin (OT)
What are the effects of thyroid hormones, glucagon, and thyroid hormone?
Thyroid hormone (T4 and T3):
Stimulate prenatal and childhood brain development and bone growth, promotes pituitary secretion of growth hormone, quicker somatic reflexes, raises heart rate and metabolic rate, promote intestinal absorption of carbs, lowers plasma cholesterol levels, stimulate metabolic rate, heat production
Glucagon:
Secreted between meals when blood glucose level falls, stimulate release of stored glucose from liver and fatty acids from adipose tissue, provide body with blood-borne fuel until next meal
Label the pineal gland
Label the suprarenal gland
Label the upper respiratory tract
Label the parts of the larynx (posterior)
Label the parts of the stomach
Label the parts of the liver
Label the kidney anatomy
Label the lower male urinary tract
Label the parts of the Epididymis
Label the parts of the Uterus
The central and peripheral chemoreceptors, and higher brain centers that influence respiration, i.e., medulla, pons.
Central chemoreceptors:
Brainstem neurons that respond to changes in pH of the CSF. Concentrated on each side of the medulla oblongata about 0.2 mm beneath its anterior surface. Also responds to CO2.
Peripheral chemoreceptors:
In the aortic arch and carotid bodies, respond to O2 and CO2 content and pH of the blood. Aortic bodies communicate with medulla by way of the vagus nerves, and the carotid bodies communicate by way of the glossopharyngeal nerves
Higher brain centers:
PRG, DRG, spinal cord integrating centers, so limbic system, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex influence respiratory centers. Signals for voluntary control over breathing travel down the corticospinal tracts to the respiratory neurons in the spinal cord, bypassing brainstem center
The position of epiglottis and its function.
A flap of tissue in the pharynx that covers the glottis during swallowing, deflecting swallowed matter away from the airway and into the esophagus
At rest, epiglottis usually stands almost vertically
What the purpose of the cartilaginous rings in the trachea?
To add support, 16-20 c-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage. Reinforces the anterior and lateral sides of the trachea to protect and maintain the airway open.
The tissue layers and sublayers of the wall of the digestive tract and the correct order from lumen to external surface.
Mucosa (lines the lumen)
- epithelium (simple columnar)
- lamina propria (loose CT)
- muscularis mucosae (thin layer smooth muscle)
Submucosa (thick loose CT, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerve plexus, mucous glands)
Muscularis Externa (propel material through tract)
- Circular Layer (smooth muscle, thickened)
- Longitudinal layer (smooth muscle)
Serosa
- Areolar tissue (thin layer)
- Mesothelium (simple squamous)
- Esophagus and rectum have adventitia (fibrous CT) instead of serosa *
The structure of the hepatic lobules and the relationship of the hepatocytes to the blood in the sinusoids, central vein (LIVER)
Hepatic lobules:
- Tiny cylinders and have central vein passing down its core
- surrounded by radiating sheets of cuboidal cells (hepatocytes)
Hepatocytes have plates that are each an epithelium one or two cells thick. Spaces between plates are blood-filled channels called hepatic sinusoids
Sinusoids lined by fenestrated endothelium, separates the hepatocytes from blood cells, allows blood plasma into the space between hepatocytes and endothelium
After a meal, blood from the intestines circulates through the hepatic sinusoids, and hepatocytes rapidly remove glucose, amino acids, iron, vitamins, and other nutrients for metabolism/storage
The hepatocytes secrete bile into narrow channels, bile canaliculi, between the plates of the lobules. From there, the bile travels through bile ductules to right and left hepatic bile ducts and exits the liver.
The major structural differences between small intestine and the large intestine.
Small Intestine:
Long, narrow, circular folds, villi, and microvilli (located on cells of villi) more absorption.
Large Intestine:
Shorter, wider, no circular folds or villi no absorption
Names and numbers of the adult and deciduous teeth.
Numbers, age at eruption in months
Deciduous (baby) teeth: (20 teeth)
- Central incisor, 6-9
- Lateral incisor, 7-11
- Canine, 16-20
- 1st molar, 12-16
- 2nd molar, 20-26
Number is age in years
Adult Teeth (32 teeth)
- Central incisor, 6-8
- Lateral incisor, 7-9
- Canine, 9-12
- 1st premolar, 10-12
- 2nd premolar, 10-12
- 1st molar, 6-7
- 2nd molar, 11-13
- 3rd molar (wisdom), 17-25
The relationships between a renal pyramid, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, and ureter.
In terms of the kidney, there is the parenchyma which is divided into the renal cortex and the real medulla. Extensions of the cortex (renal columns) project toward the sinus and divide the medulla into 6-10 renal pyramids.
The papilla of each renal pyramid is nestled into a cup called a minor calyx, which collects urine.
2-3 minor calyx develop into the major calyx, and 2 or 3 major calyx converge in the sinus to for the funnel like renal pelvis.
The ureter is a tubular continuation of the renal pelvis that drains urine down the urinary bladder.
The meaning and numbers of nephron and the anatomical components, arteriole, of this structure.
Kidney consisting of more than a million nephrons
The functional unit of the kidney
Consists of renal corpuscle (filters blood plasma) and long renal tubule (converts filtrate to urine)
- Filtration, secretion, water conservation
Renal corpuscle consists of bowman’s corpuscle and glomerulus
Renal tubes consists proximal tubule, nephron loop, distal convoluted tube, collecting duct, and papillary ducts shared by multiple neurons
Afferent arteriole enters the renal corpuscle (glomerulus) and the efferent arteriole exists on the same side
The anatomy of the urinary bladder.
Bladder is a sac on the floor of pelvic cavity
Detrusor – muscular layer (3 separated layers of smooth muscle)
Rugae – wrinkles of mucosa, filling of the bladder stretches and flattens this, they reappear when bladder is empty
Trigone – triangular region on floor of bladder defined by two ureter inlets and one urethra outlet
The three regions of the male urethra.
1) Prostatic urethra begins at the bladder and passes through the prostate gland
2) Membranous urethra is a short, thin-walled portion that passes through the muscular pelvic floor
3) Spongy (penile) urethra passes through the penis to the external urethral orifice.
What are the normal, final compositions of the urine.
95% water, 2% urea, 0.1% creatine, 0.03% uric acid, and other ions
The gross anatomy of the uterus and connection to ovary.
Muscular chamber that opens into the roof of the vagina and tilts forward over the urinary bladder
Pear-shaped with fundus (broad superior curvature), mid-portion (called the body), narrow inferior called cervix
Cervical canal (with cervical glands) connects to vagina
The uterine wall is three-layered: an outer serosa called the perimetrium, a thick muscular myometrium, and an inner mucosa called the endometrium. The endometrium contains numerous tubular glands and is divided into two layers—a thick superficial stratum functionalis, which is shed in each menstrual period, and a thinner basal stratum basalis, which is retained from cycle to cycle.
Connects to the ovary by the fallopian tube, also called uterine tube and oviducts. “A canal that leads to the uterus”
Definition of ovulation, and how many primary oocytes does a female have by the onset of puberty?
Ovulation - The release of a mature oocyte by the bursting of an ovarian follicle, Occurs on day 14 of the ovarian cycle.
The follicle ruptures and the fluid carrying the oocyte and a surrounding layer of cumulus cells ooze out. After ovulation, the follicle collapses and is transformed into a structure called the corpus luteum.
Corpus luteum secretes a large amount of progesterone that prepares the uterus for pregnancy. If pregnancy does not occur, levels of progesterone drop and menstruation ensues. If the egg is fertilized, the corpus luteum produces progesterone for the first three months of pregnancy.
A female has 200,000 - 400,000 oocytes (developing egg) at the onset of puberty
The structure and function of myoepithelial cells, tunica albuginea, epididymis.
Myoepithelial:
- In breasts, targeted by oxytocin
- Compresses the acinus and expels milk into the lactiferous ducts
- Epithelial cell specialized to contract like a muscle cell
Tunica Albuginea:
- Shiny, white, fibrous capsule
- Septa from the tunica albuginea divide the testes into lobules
- Protects erectile tissue, protective layer of the ovary
Epididymis:
- Site of sperm maturation and storage
- Sperm remain fertile for 40 - 60 days, but if become old, epididymis reabsorbs them
- Adheres to posterior side of the testis and consists of clublike head at superior end, long middle body, and slender tail at inferior end
The gross anatomy and position of the prostate gland.
Surrounds urethra and ejaculatory ducts (releases sperm from seminal vesicle during ejaculation) inferior to the bladder
Empties into urethra duct immediately
Its secretions enter the urethra, and constitute about 30% of the semen.
The structure of an individual erectile tissue of male.
Three cylindrical bodies called erectile tissue fill with blood during sexual arousal and cause an erection. the
corpus spongiosum on the ventral side of the penis and the corpus cavernosum on either side of the dorsal penis. Internally, the penis continues as the root. The corpus spongiosum terminates as a dilated bulb. The corpus cavernosa diverge and each arm (crus) attaches the penis to the pubic arch.
The penis receives blood from the internal pudendal arteries that branch from the internal iliac arteries. Deep arteries travel through the corpus cavernosum, and when they dilate, blood sinuses called lacunae fill and the erectile tissues swell. A deep dorsal vein drains the blood and empties it into a plexus of prostatic veins.
The structure of an individual erectile tissue of female.
Deep to the labia majora is subcutaneous erectile tissue, the vestibular bulbs, which bracket the vagina and become congested with blood during sexual excitement. Next to the vagina are greater vestibular (Bartholin) glands with short ducts opening to the lower vagina. They keep the vulva moist and provide lubrication for intercourse.
The gross anatomy of the breast; and the structure of the mammary gland
(particularly the acini, lactiferous sinus).
Breast - mound of tissue overlying the pectoralis major. Enlarges at puberty and remains so for life. Contains very little mammary gland
Mammary gland - milk-secreting gland develops within the breast during pregnancy and lactation; minimally developed in breast of those who are not pregnant and not lactating
Lactiferous sinus - dilated lactiferous duct, opening onto the nipple, duct branches repeatedly with the finest branches ending in sacs called acini
Acini - Organized into grapelike clusters (lobules) within each lobe of the breast. Each acinus consists of a sac of pyramidal secretory cells arranged around a central lumen. Acinus is surrounded by a network of contractile myoepithelial cells.
