Cold War Confrontations and Conflicts - The Ending of the Vietnam War

Question 1

What was the growing peace movement in the USA?

Answer 1

A poll in August 1965 showed that 61 per cent of the US population supported American troops in Vietnam. The public bought into the importance of containing the spread of communism and both Johnson and Kennedy had strong mandates to act against it. However, a peace movement against the war began to grow in the late 1960s.

Question 2

When did the peace movement in the USA grow?

Answer 2

The anti-war movement began to grow significantly between 1965 and 1967, coinciding with the start of Operation Rolling Thunder and the mass bombings of North Vietnam.

Question 3

Where did the peace movement in the USA grow?

Answer 3

By 1967 there were protests all over America. A famous one in October 1967 saw over 100,000 demonstrators protest at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington. It later continued outside the Pentagon, where there were violent clashes between protesters and soldiers.

Question 4

Why did the peace movement in the USA grow?

Answer 4

• Some protestors questioned the morality of America’s involvement.
• The broadcast of images from the war on television had an impact on people’s views.
• Martin Luther King, the civil rights leader, had an impact on people’s views.
• There was a lack of progress in President Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ policies.
• The war was costing a lot, both financially and in terms of lives lost.
• The draft system increased people’s opposition to the war.

Question 5

Why did questions over the morality of America’s involvement in Vietnam cause a growth in the peace movement in the USA?

Answer 5

People questioned the morality of America’s tactics in Vietnam and asked why America was involved in the affairs of another country on a different continent. America was not simply helping South Vietnam defend itself; it had attacked North Vietnam. Many saw this as the action of an aggressor.

Question 6

What was broadcast on television about the Vietnam War, leading to a growth in the peace movement in the USA?

Answer 6

• They saw villages being blown up.
• They saw the jungle being napalmed.
• They heard reports of massacres where civilians were tortured, raped and murdered, such as at My Lai.
• They heard of young American soldiers being injured or killed by the barbaric Vietcong booby traps.
• They saw mounting numbers of body bags arriving home from the war.

Question 7

Why did the portrayal of the war on television cause a growth in the peace movement in the USA?

Answer 7

The television images of the Vietnam War shocked people, and added weight to questions over the morality of America’s involvement in the war. People did not think it was in America’s interests to continue.

Question 8

Why did the role of Martin Luther King cause a growth in the peace movement across the USA?

Answer 8

• He spoke out about inequalities in the recruitment of troops. Between 1966 and 1969, 246,000 men were recruited to fight in Vietnam; 41 per cent were black Americans, yet they only made up 11 per cent of America’s population. By 1968, black Americans made up 12 per cent of the army, but 50 per cent of men serving on the frontline.
• King argued the war was immoral, saying the money spent on fighting in Vietnam should go towards domestic programmes to improve the lives of Americans.

Question 9

Why did pressure on President Johnson to fulfil his election promise of a ‘Great Society’ lead to a growth in the peace movement?

Answer 9

In 1964, Johnson had campaigned on a programme of improving housing, education, healthcare and employment - the ‘Great Society’. People became frustrated as there was little progress, yet the costs of the war were spiralling. Money earmarked for raising living standards was used to fund the war instead.

Question 10

Why did the cost of the war lead to a growth in the peace movement?

Answer 10

• The war was a huge financial burden on the USA. By 1967 it cost $30 billion per year. This meant other important areas of the economy, such as domestic reform, were neglected.
• Families across America were paying a high price in terms of the loved ones they lost. By the end of 1967 there were 500,000 US soldiers in Vietnam, and 40,000 more sent each month. 15,000 troops had lost their lives and 110,000 were wounded.
• For those soldiers who were injured, the war cost them their quality of life. Many lost limbs and were wheelchair-bound for the rest of their lives. Many suffered from post-traumatic stress.

Question 11

Why did the draft lead to a growth in the peace movement?

Answer 11

Many young men recruited to fight in Vietnam as a result of the draft resented being forced to fight a war they did not agree with.

Question 12

How did people protest as the peace movement grew in the USA?

Answer 12

• A group of university students established ‘Students for Democratic Society’ and protested through ‘teach ins’. They held debates and lectures, and sang songs against the war.
• In October 1967, 100,000 people protested at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington.
• Veterans of the war established ‘Vietnam Veterans Against the War’. They protested by throwing away the medals they had received.
• Many young men called up by the draft burned their draft cards very publicly.
• Student protests involved over 40,000 students chanting ‘Hey, hey, LBJ! How many kids did you kill today?’, aimed as a criticism at President Johnson. Many people believed he had the blood of both US soldiers and Vietnamese civilians on his hands.

Question 13

What was the impact of the growing peace movement on the war in Vietnam?

Answer 13

• The personal criticism upset Johnson, so much so he declared that he would not run in the next presidential election in 1968.
• The peace movement was a significant factor in the USA’s withdrawal from Vietnam in the 1970s, under President Nixon.

Question 14

What was Richard Nixon’s involvement in the Vietnam War?

Answer 14

Nixon took office at a time when America had made little progress in fighting the Vietcong or containing communism in the region. Growing demands for peace, and the realisation the US couldn’t win, led Nixon to promise the war would end with an ‘honourable peace’ US troops brought home.

Question 15

What were Richard Nixon’s views on America’s involvement in Vietnam?

Answer 15

Nixon believed the USA should withdraw from Vietnam. He understood clearly that the conflict couldn’t be won with traditional military tactics; neither could he engage in nuclear warfare as this would provoke China and the USSR and threaten a nuclear apocalypse. However, he had not abandoned the USA’s commitment to contain communism.

Question 16

What influenced Richard Nixon’s views on America’s involvement in Vietnam?

Answer 16

• Public trust in the government was low, so he had to ensure whatever course of action he took was supported by the public.
• Nixon had a double burden. He knew he had to withdraw US troops from Vietnam but, like his predecessors, he did not want to be known as the president who lost South Vietnam to communism.
• He had served as vice-president to Eisenhower and shared his views on the importance of containment. Nixon was operating in the context of the Cold War.

Question 17

What were the key events in Richard Nixon’s involvement in Vietnam?

Answer 17

• On 3rd November, 1969, he announced his policy of Vietnamisation.
• By the end of 1969, 85,000 of the 540,000 US soldiers in Vietnam had been withdrawn.
• In March 1969, Nixon authorised the bombing of Cambodia. This was initially kept secret, but was later seen as a widening of the war.
• In April 1970, he authorised an invasion of Cambodia by the US Army.
• In May 1970, students protested at the Kent State University in Ohio - one of the most famous demonstrations against the war.
• In May 1970, Nixon declared 150,000 more troops were needed. This led to huge demonstrations throughout the USA.
• In February 1971, US forces launched an attack on North Vietnamese soldiers in Laos.
• In the spring of 1972, the North Vietnamese attacked South Vietnam.
• As part of a wider policy of détente (the easing of tensions between countries), the USA entered discussions with the USSR regarding arms limitations. Nixon also requested that the USSR put pressure on the North Vietnamese to end the war.
• Nixon was the first US president to be invited to communist China. During his visit, in February 1972, he also asked China to put pressure on North Vietnam to end the conflict.
• In October 1972, North Vietnam proposed an ‘in place’ ceasefire.
• On 27th January, 1973, the Paris Peace Accord was signed and brought an end to the conflict.
• In March 1973, the last US soldiers left Vietnam.

Question 18

What was the significance of Richard Nixon’s involvement in the Vietnam War?

Answer 18

Nixon’s involvement in the Vietnam War was significant as, under his leadership, the conflict came to an end. While it did appear for some time this might not happen - as there was an expansion of the war during his presidency - he fulfilled his commitment to bring US troops home.

Question 19

What was Vietnamisation?

Answer 19

Vietnamisation was a US policy to end American involvement in Vietnam by developing the South Vietnamese army.

Question 20

When was the policy of Vietnamisation introduced?

Answer 20

The policy of Vietnamisation was officially announced on 3rd November, 1969. By spring 1972, when US forces attacked Laos, it was evident the policy was failing.

Question 21

Who was involved in the policy of Vietnamisation?

Answer 21

The policy of Vietnamisation was the idea of President Nixon, who implemented it during his time in office.

Question 22

What were the aims of the policy of Vietnamisation?

Answer 22

• It aimed to make the ARVN self-sufficient, so it could defend South Vietnam without US support.
• This, in turn, would enable Nixon to withdraw US troops from Vietnam.

Question 23

Why was the policy of Vietnamisation introduced?

Answer 23

• Nixon was realistic about the unlikelihood of victory in Vietnam, and knew he had to bring an end to the war.
• Nixon could not use nuclear weapons to do this, so he had to find another way.
• Nixon was anti-communist and did not want South Vietnam to fall to communism.
• Nixon believed the South Vietnamese should take responsibility for their own defence.
• Nixon needed to find a practical solution to the war quickly, as a poll in early 1969 showed 56 per cent of Americans thought US involvement in Vietnam was wrong.

Question 24

What problems did President Nixon face when implementing the policy of Vietnamisation?

Answer 24

At the same time as Nixon implemented Vietnamisation, intending to withdraw US troops, he was also extending the war into into Cambodia and Laos. For this, he needed more soldiers. In April 1970 he announced 100,000 more troops were needed, prompting widespread demonstrations across the USA.

Question 25

How did the policy of Vietnamisation work?

Answer 25

• The USA was to provide training and equipment for the expansion of the ARVN.
• Local villagers would be recruited as civilian militia, in charge of securing rural areas.
• The ARVN would take a more direct role in seeking out the Vietcong. Since 1965 they had taken a back seat to the US.
• Between 1968 and 1971, the ARVN was increased from 393,000 to 532,000 troops.
• As the ARVN became more self-sufficient, US troops would be withdrawn from Vietnam. The first notable departure was on 7th July, 1969.
• By the beginning of 1970 the ARNV had been equipped with $4 billion worth of military supplies, including rifles, artillery, munitions, and helicopters.
• ARNV officers had received specialised training in command, military strategy, and counter-insurgency warfare.

Question 26

Was the policy of Vietnamisation successful?

Answer 26

The policy of Vietnamisation made South Vietnam one of the most militarised countries in Asia, and half the South Vietnamese population had been recruited. But it was a failure.

Question 27

Why did Vietnamisation fail?

Answer 27

• There was a poor harvest in 1972.
• There was corruption and theft.
• The US did not provide enough funding.
• The ARVN soldiers were not adequately trained.
• The South Vietnamese government was very unpopular.
• The ARVN was militarily weak and corrupt.
• South Vietnam was economically weak.

Question 28

How did corruption cause Vietnamisation to fail?

Answer 28

The stealing of supplies and equipment was common. Officers regularly took bribes, which allowed thieves to steal goods. This cost the US Army millions of dollars in lost equipment, and meant that troops were not adequately supplied. This made winning the war harder.

Question 29

How did funding cause the failure of Vietnamisation?

Answer 29

The amount of funding available was restricted by the US Congress. This limited the capability and options available to the US military.

Question 30

How did the inadequate training of the ARVN troops lead to the failure of the policy of Vietnamisation?

Answer 30

The training of ARVN troops was rushed. Instructions for equipment use and operation were given in English, which the Vietnamese could not understand. Without US support, the ARVN was unable to continue fighting.

Question 31

How did the unpopularity of the South Vietnamese government lead to the failure of the policy of Vietnamisation?

Answer 31

The South Vietnamese people disliked their own government. It was weak and divided, and they saw it as a puppet of a US administration that was also corrupt. It could not survive without billions of dollars of aid provided by America.

Question 32

How did the military weaknesses and the corruption of the ARNV lead to the failure of the policy of Vietnamisation?

Answer 32

American had thrown significant funding at the ARVN, but they couldn’t change the fact it was a much divided organisation, riddled with corruption and incompetence. Even though the US had provided training, its leaders were incapable of commanding the respect of their men, and did not have the morale needed to combat the Vietcong.

Question 33

How did the economic weaknesses of South Vietnam lead to the failure of the policy of Vietnamisation?

Answer 33

The USA had been propping up the South Vietnamese government since the 1950s, and it had become dependent on American funding. At the same time, the US was looking to gradually withdraw funding, while the USSR and China were sending significant funds to the government in North Vietnam.

Question 34

What was the student movement?

Answer 34

The student movement was a left-wing crusade which wanted to transform American society. It focused on perceived social, political and economic injustices of the time.

Question 35

When did the student movement develop?

Answer 35

The student movement began to gain momentum at the end of the 1960s and in the early 1970s.

Question 36

Why did the student movement develop?

Answer 36

• Students wanted a greater say in their education at college and university.
• Students wanted a form of participatory democracy in which people had more say in politics and more control over decisions made by the government.
• Students wanted to end racism and fight for civil rights.
• Students were against the Vietnam War.

Question 37

Why did the student movement oppose the Vietnam War?

Answer 37

• Media coverage turned people against the war.
• 12 per cent of soldiers that fought in the war ended up either dead or seriously injured. The number of amputations was approximately 300 per cent higher than in the Second World War.
• The average age of an American GI killed in Vietnam was 23.
• 2,000,000 men were forced to fight in Vietnam between 1964 and 1972 as a result of the draft.
• Leading figures like Martin Luther King and Muhammad Ali highlighted issues of racial inequality in the US forces.
• People did not like the corruption and brutality of the South Vietnamese government as it was undemocratic.
• Even politicians began to question the war, which was distracting the government from pressing domestic issues like education and healthcare.
• The USA was losing against the Vietcong. Events like the Tet Offensive and My Lai Massacre brought this home to the American people.

Question 38

How did students and hippies protest against the war in Vietnam as part of the student movement?

Answer 38

• 500,000 people came together in Washington on 15th November, 1969, to listen to speeches and songs about ending the war. It was the biggest anti-war protest in US history.
• Hippies protested by rejecting the traditional American way of life. Not working or going to school, growing hair long and taking illegal drugs was seen as a rejection of government and authority.
• Student protests became increasingly violent and there were many clashes with police.
• In August 1970, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in Wisconsin, a bomb was detonated by student protesters. One person was killed and several others injured.
• In May 1970, there were protests at the Kent State University which resulted in the deaths of 4 students.

Question 39

What was the significance of the student movement to the Vietnam War?

Answer 39

The student movement was significant as it was a key factor in the eventual withdrawal of US forces from Vietnam.

Question 40

What was the Kent State Protest?

Answer 40

The Kent State Protest, or Kent State shootings, involved the shooting and killing of unarmed university students who were protesting against the Vietnam War.

Question 41

When did the Kent State University protest shootings happen?

Answer 41

The Kent State protest occurred between 1st and 4th May, 1970. The shootings took place on the final day.

Question 42

Where did the Kent State Shootings happen?

Answer 42

The shootings happened at Kent State University in the state of Ohio.

Question 43

Why did the Kent State University protest shootings happen?

Answer 43

• Protestors were demonstrating at the university against the Vietnam War. This was prompted by Nixon’s announcement of the invasion of Cambodia and the need for 150,000 more US troops.
• The Ohio state governor had sent in the National Guard to stop the demonstrations that had taken place all weekend. On the Monday, the protests turned violent and events escalated to the shootings.

Question 44

What were the key events in the Kent State University protest shootings?

Answer 44

• President Nixon announced to the American public that US forces had invaded Cambodia on 30th April, 1970.
• Protests across America took place the next day at many colleges and universities, including Kent State University.
• Protests continued over the weekend, often escalating to clashes between protesters and police. Windows were smashed and police cars vandalised.
• With further protests planned for Monday, 4th May, amid fears of continued violence, 1,000 National Guardsmen were sent to stop them.
• Just after midday, violence erupted. Students threw rocks and the National Guardsmen responded with tear gas.
• In the chaos, at 12.24pm, some of the National Guardsmen started shooting at the protesters. 4 students, including one called Jeffrey Miller, were killed and a further 9 were injured.

Question 45

Why were the shootings at the Kent State Protest controversial?

Answer 45

The students killed in the Kent State shootings were white and middle class, which was why there was such public outrage. When two black students were shot and 12 injured during an anti-war protest at Jackson State University, there was very little publicity or reaction.

Question 46

What was significant about the shootings at the Kent State University protest?

Answer 46

The shootings were significant as it strengthened the anti-war movement further and led to increased calls for America to withdraw from Vietnam.

Question 47

What media coverage was there of the Vietnam War?

Answer 47

US media coverage continued to expand as the war continued. In 1964 there were fewer than 10 journalists in Vietnam, but by 1968 there were over 600. Television also played a part in bringing the war into American homes.

Question 48

What are some examples of media coverage of the Vietnam War?

Answer 48

• The Tet Offensive in January 1968. Coverage showed Vietnamese civilians being killed and ancient monuments destroyed.
• In February 1968 there were news stories of General Nguyen Ngoc Loan’s execution of a Vietcong fighter.
• In November 1969 the media broke the truth about the My Lai Massacre.

Question 49

Why was there an increase in media coverage of the Vietnam War?

Answer 49

• To begin with, there were few troops in Vietnam. In 1960 there were only 900 ‘military advisers’, and no reporters.
• This changed in 1960 when local Vietnamese people were killed in an attack against Diem, the South Vietnamese president. Many journalists travelled to Vietnam to report on the event.
• As US involvement in the war increased, so too did the number of journalists covering the conflict. By 1965 there were 400 foreign news reporters in Vietnam - an increase of 900 per cent on 1964.
• Since the Second World War, there had been a significant increase in the number of Americans who owned a television. In 1948, just 1 per cent of American households had a television; by 1961, this had risen to 93 per cent.
• Journalists were better equipped to report the news with ground-breaking technology such as video cameras and voice recorders. It helped reporters capture the reality of the war and broadcast it to America and the world.
• There was no censorship on coverage of the Vietnam War. The Second World War and Korean War had been filmed by military cameramen, but Vietnam was caught on film by independent television networks.

Question 50

What were the ‘five o’clock follies’ in media coverage of the Vietnam War?

Answer 50

As the war intensified in the mid 1960s, US forces met with journalists covering the conflict daily at 5:00pm. The journalists would jeer and mock the military officials as they felt the truth was being hidden about the extent of failures of the US Army in Vietnam. These meetings became known as the ‘five o’clock follies’ as they were seen as useless.

Question 51

What was the significance of media coverage of the Tet Offensive in the Vietnam War?

Answer 51

• The coverage resulted in a change in how the war was reported and how the public perceived the conflict.
• For many months officials had assured the public that they were winning the war, however the TV media coverage of the Tet Offensive contradicted this.
• TV reports of the Tet Offensive showed the fall of the US embassy of Saigon - a symbolic defeat in the eyes of Americans (although the US eventually won it back).
• Viewers saw the brutality of the war, and after the Tet Offensive many people did not trust what they were being told.

Question 52

How did media coverage expose the government’s lies to the public about the Vietnam War?

Answer 52

People lost faith when they realised the government was not being completely honest about what was happening in Vietnam. For example, the US government claimed victory in the Tet Offensive, but CBS journalist Walter Cronkite reported the reality and showed that it was a stalemate.

Question 53

What was the ‘credibility gap’ on television during the Vietnam War?

Answer 53

The ‘credibility gap’ was the term used to describe the difference between what the US government said was happening, and what people saw happening on TV.

Question 54

What was the significance of Walter Cronkite’s role in media coverage of the Vietnam War?

Answer 54

• Walter Cronkite was a famous news broadcaster, seen as one of the ‘most trusted men in America’. His coverage of the war played a huge role in the peace movement.
• In one of his news broadcasts for CBS, in February 1968, he said: ‘It seems now more certain than ever, that the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end a stalemate… it is increasingly clear to the only rational way out then will be to negotiate.’.
• Cronkite was so influential that President Johnson once said to an advisor: ‘If I have lost Cronkite, I’ve lost this country.’.
• When Walter Cronkite made his famous statement on the Tet Offensive in 1968, it was considered a turning point in the media and public attitude, and the beginning of the fading of support for the war.

Question 55

What was the significance of media coverage of the My Lai Massacre in the Vietnam War?

Answer 55

Coverage of the My Lai Massacre in March 1968, was significant because it damaged the reputation of the US forces. Americans were shocked and appalled about both the reports of their soldiers murdering innocent people but also the fact that the army and government had tried to cover it up.

Question 56

What was the impact of media coverage of the Vietnam War?

Answer 56

• It led to a lack of trust in the US Army and the government. When the New York Times published leaked reports of American actions in Vietnam in June 1971 that were supposed to be secret many felt they had been lied to about the war.
• The media coverage influenced public opinion. When the names and faces of over 200 US soldiers were published during a week of fighting in 1969, people became angry about fighting a distant war.
• As more and more stories were published of soldiers and civilians dying and the brutality of the war, this affected the morale and behaviour in the US forces.
• The failure of US tactics in Vietnam was widely published and clear for Americans to see on the television and this led to more people questioning the point of the war and if the USA could win.
• The anti-war movement was further strengthened by the TV media coverage of the conflict.

Question 57

What political opposition was there to the Vietnam War?

Answer 57

Politicians began to oppose the war for several reasons, as they responded to public sentiment. They demonstrated their opposition in Congress and other governing institutions, as well as publicly.

Question 58

What were the reasons for political opposition to the Vietnam War?

Answer 58

• It seemed unwinnable. Events like the Tet Offensive demonstrated the strength of the Vietcong, and the invasion of Laos proved the policy of Vietnamisation was not working.
• The cost was extremely high. It is estimated the war cost the US government $170 billion - around $1 trillion in today’s money. The financial burden meant domestic spending programmes on things like education and healthcare were neglected.
• It risked destroying international relations. Many nations, including the United Kingdom which had a ‘special relationship’ with the USA, distanced themselves from the Vietnam War. The UK did not join the war as it felt it was hypocritical to fight against a nation battling for independence.
• The US opposition party, the Democrats, saw opposing the war as a way to criticise the administration and gain power.
• Media coverage, particularly on television, brought home the brutality of war to politicians and the public alike.

Question 59

What international political opposition was there to the Vietnam War?

Answer 59

The USA was condemned by many countries for incidents such as the My Lai Massacre and its use of chemical weapons.

Question 60

How did the media affect the political opposition to the Vietnam War?

Answer 60

The media coverage of events such as the My Lai Massacre and Kent State shootings, along with photographs of the horrific effects of Agent Orange and napalm, sparked shock and outrage worldwide. Some politicians were embarrassed to be American.

Question 61

What was the significance of the political opposition to the Vietnam War.

Answer 61

The political opposition to the Vietnam War was significant because it contributed to the reasons for US withdrawal from Vietnam. The US government came under increasing pressure from both the public and leading politicians to bring US troops home from Vietnam.

Question 62

What was the US withdrawal from Vietnam?

Answer 62

Nixon had been elected as president on a promise to withdraw America from Vietnam and to secure an ‘honourable peace’. During his presidency he worked to bring all US soldiers home from the conflict and end the war in Vietnam.

Question 63

When was the US withdrawal from Vietnam?

Answer 63

Nixon began working on the process of withdrawal from January 1969 and the last American soldiers left the region in March 1973.

Question 64

Why did the US withdraw from Vietnam?

Answer 64

• The Americans realised the war was unwinnable. Their tactics had failed against the guerrilla warfare of the Vietcong.
• The morale of American soldiers in Vietnam was incredibly low, making it difficult to continue fighting.
• The economic cost of the war was proving too high. By the late 1960s it was costing $30 million a year, to the detriment of domestic programmes such as improving education and healthcare.
• When the conflict began the American people bought into the idea of saving South Vietnam from communism. However, by the end of the 1960s, they did not believe in the war any more. They felt it was not the USA’s business, and money should not be spent on it while people suffered at home.
• Opposition to the war was reaching breaking point with incidents like the Kent State University shootings. Political opposition was also increasing and trust in the government was at an all-time low.
• The role of the media hugely influenced public opinion about the war and was largely negative about America’s involvement in Vietnam.
• The American people felt the war was immoral. Media coverage meant they witnessed the atrocities being committed in Vietnam by US forces, and they believed the killing of innocent people was wrong.

Question 65

What was Nixon’s approach to the US withdrawal from Vietnam?

Answer 65

• A key policy was Vietnamisation, introduced in 1969. The idea was for that training from US forces would enable the South Vietnamese army (ARVN) to become self-sufficient in fighting the Vietcong, meaning Nixon could bring American troops home.
• He used his political experience to encourage the South Vietnamese government to reach a compromise with North Vietnam. He also used improved relationships with the USSR and China to persuade them to pressure Ho Chi Minh to bring an end to the war.
• He used his National Security Adviser, a particularly talented politician called Henry Kissinger, to try and negotiate a ceasefire with North Vietnam.
• He increased the bombing of North Vietnam and expanded the targets to include Vietcong supply routes in Cambodia and Laos. He hoped this would force Ho Chi Minh to the negotiating table and bring an end to the war.

Question 66

What did Nixon promise to South Vietnam once the US had withdrawn?

Answer 66

While Nixon was committed to America’s withdrawal from Vietnam, he still firmly believed in the Domino Theory. To ensure South Vietnam did not fall to communism once the USA had left, he promised it support with money and weapons.

Question 67

What happened to South Vietnam after the US withdrew?

Answer 67

• The money and weapons promised by Nixon did not materialise. It was felt far too much money had been spent on the war and the US government refused to send further support to what it saw as a corrupt and cruel regime.
• In December 1974, North Vietnam attacked the town of Phuoc Long in South Vietnam. This marked the beginning of an extensive campaign of attacks that saw the North Vietnamese occupy several cities and military bases.
• In April 1975 the capital city of South Vietnam, Saigon, fell to communism and was renamed Ho Chi Minh City.

Question 68

What were the consequences of US withdrawal from Vietnam?

Answer 68

• An end to the war after decades of conflict
• After the fall of Saigon in 1975, North and South Vietnam were united as a communist nation.

Question 69

What caused the USA to fail in Vietnam?

Answer 69

The American government and public lacked a clear understanding of, or the motivation and adaptability to succeed, in Vietnam. They were also at a disadvantage culturally, politically and militarily, as they were not Vietnamese.

Question 70

What were the main reasons the USA failed in Vietnam?

Answer 70

• The tactics and resolve of the Vietcong.
• The cultural weaknesses of the USA in Vietnam.
• The political and public opposition to the war in the USA.
• The military weaknesses of the American forces.

Question 71

Why did cultural weaknesses lead to the USA failing in Vietnam?

Answer 71

• Many Americans had racist attitudes towards the Vietnamese, meaning they did not always treat local civilians well. This led to atrocities like the My Lai Massacre. US forces needed the support of the locals, but mostly alienated them.
• It was hard to gain support from the locals because they didn’t speak their language and needed interpreters.
• Most Americans had no idea what the country was like. They didn’t understand why villagers were unwilling to leave the lands where their ancestors were buried. This led to feelings of hatred from the local population and increased support for the Vietcong.
• The Americans didn’t realise most Vietnamese villagers were unable to read, so dropping leaflets warning them to leave before bombing raids happened didn’t work. Millions of innocent civilians were killed during the conflict.
• Many South Vietnamese saw the USA as occupiers imposing their ideas - just as the French and Japanese had - and not advocates for democracy. They helped the Vietcong, creating further difficulties for the US forces.

Question 72

Why did political and public opposition lead to the USA’s failure in Vietnam?

Answer 72

• The USA backed the South Vietnamese government, which was corrupt. Many officials had worked for the French, making America even more unpopular. Political figures and the American public objected to the USA fighting a war that defended a corrupt regime.
• The USA faced opposition at home in the form of anti-war protests, and restricted funding from Congress after 1971. This placed President Nixon under huge pressure to withdraw from Vietnam.
• The US public questioned the legitimacy of the war, meaning the US government no longer had a mandate to fight.
• Americans were horrified by media coverage of the war, and this led to a growth in the anti-war movement. By 1971, many surveys showed the majority of American people wanted US troops brought home immediately and an end to the conflict. The US government could not fight a war its people did not want.

Question 73

Why did weaknesses in the USA’s military lead to its failure in Vietnam?

Answer 73

• The military believed the war could be won with more troops and through bombing campaigns in North Vietnam, which was not the limited war the government wanted. US forces also failed to adjust their tactics to suit Vietnam’s terrain and climate.
• US tactics alienated locals and caused resentment. ‘Search and destroy’ included soldiers burning the homes of villagers.
• As the war progressed more soldiers were needed, so the draft became increasingly important. It meant many young and inexperienced soldiers were posted to Vietnam - and, as they returned home after a year, they left just as they were learning how to fight in the country’s tough conditions. This contributed to the high number of casualties.
• Soldiers lacked training in how to combat guerrilla tactics. Their weapon and methods were ineffective in the jungle. One key problem faced by inexperienced GIs was the inability to recognise the enemy, leading to the deaths of innocent civilians and demoralised troops.
• Discipline among US soldiers was inadequate. Drug taking and desertion - where a soldier would leave his post - were rife. Approximately 30 per cent of US troops in Vietnam used heroin, further impacting their competency to fight effectively.
• The US military did not adapt their approach to combat the Vietcong’s guerrilla tactics, and therefore could not beat it.
• Their tactics often killed innocent civilians and sometimes their own troops. This led to low morale among the US forces which made it difficult for them to fight.
• With 12,000km between the USA and Vietnam, it meant US forces often had problems with their equipment and weapons.
• Racial inequalities in the US Army led to low morale and significant opposition back home. By 1970, black Americans made up 11 per cent of soldiers in Vietnam but almost 25 per cent of the casualties. Black soldiers questioned why they were fighting a war in the name of a freedom they did not have themselves.

Question 74

How did the strengths of the Vietcong lead to the USA’s failure in Vietnam?

Answer 74

• They knew the landscape, culture and language of the south, and so could easily navigate their way around undetected. They could also garner the support of the locals.
• The Vietnamese had a history of fighting foreign invaders, namely France and Japan. They were determined to remove all foreign influences from their country.
• The Vietcong was already well established in the south, so North Vietnam could work with them and send supplies using the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Many North Vietnamese fighters were originally from the south, before the 1954 Geneva Accords, and so had family and contacts they could use.
• They had international support. Between 1954 and 1967, China and the USSR sent $3 billion in aid, weapons, and equipment. Laos and Cambodia allowed the Ho Chi Minh Trail to run through their countries, and there was little America could do to stop this without further conflict.
• The North Vietnamese and Vietcong troops were used to jungle conditions. They used guerrilla tactics and fought small skirmishes, although they could also fight large battles. These tactics were perfect for the terrain, and the USA could not fight effectively.
• The Vietcong used a system of tunnels and bases to move supplies, troops and equipment. They were well-organised and experienced. The USA continuously failed at destroying the Vietcong’s supply lines.
• The North Vietnamese and Vietcong troops were fighting for their country. They had a clear motive to achieve victory and fought with fierce determination. The US troops, however, were fighting 12,000km from home for a cause they increasingly cared less about.

Question 75

What was the impact of the Vietnam War?

Answer 75

The financial, human and environmental impact of the Vietnam War was huge. It also had a major effect on the USA’s reputation at home and abroad.

Question 76

What was the financial impact of the Vietnam War?

Answer 76

• The war cost an estimated $170 billion - $1 trillion at today’s rates.
• Long-term costs included benefits and pensions given to Vietnam veterans, or to their families if they died in service. It is thought these costs doubled the price of the war.
• Decades of conflict left Vietnam financially unstable and many people faced starvation as a result.

Question 77

What was the significance of the financial impact of the Vietnam War?

Answer 77

The financial cost of the war meant promises of domestic reform in America were broken. Johnson had promised a ‘Great Society’ and a ‘War on Poverty’. However, with America spending billions of dollars every year on the Vietnam War, there was no money left for better education and healthcare.

Question 78

What was the impact of the Vietnam War on America’s reputation at home?

Answer 78

• The war divided America. Many opposed it and felt America’s actions were morally wrong. Others felt it was unpatriotic to question the government’s actions and said anti-war protesters were traitors and communists.
• The cover-up of events like My Lai, and Nixon’s secret bombings of Cambodia, created a culture of distrust of the government.

Question 79

What was the impact of the Vietnam War on America’s reputation abroad?

Answer 79

• America was mostly seen as the loser in the war as it failed to defeat the Vietcong. This was embarrassing for a nation that saw itself as a superpower.
• America’s actions were hypocritical. On one hand it proclaimed freedom and peace for all and claimed it was ‘the land of the free’. On the other, unarmed protesters were being shot at; its soldiers carried out atrocities such as the My Lai Massacre; innocent civilians were killed and maimed through its use of chemical weapons.
• America failed to contain communism in Southeast Asia. Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos all became communist states. This was a further embarrassment.

Question 80

What was the impact of the war on Vietnam politically?

Answer 80

The war led to Vietnam becoming united under a communist government. However, it faced further hostility from the US government, which blocked its attempt to join the United Nations, leaving it internationally isolated.