SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH THE AGES

Question 1

Orthodox Schools believed that Vedas were the supreme revealed scriptures that hold the secret of salvation. They did not question the authenticity of the Vedas. They had six sub schools that were called the __________.

Answer 1

Shada Darshana.

Question 2

Samkhya school was founded by?

Answer 2

Kapil Muni.

Question 3

Difference between Original Samkhya view and New Samkhya view?

Answer 3

1. Time period:–
   - O– dates around 1st century AD.
   - N– 4th century AD.
2. Divine agency:–
   - O– Presence of any divine agency was not necessary for the creation of the universe.
   - N– Along with the element of nature, Purusha or spirit was necessary for the creation of the universe.
3. View:–
   - O– Rational and scientific view of creation of the universe.
   - N– Propounded a spiritual view of the creation of the universe.
4. World owns its existence to:–
   - O– World owned its existence to nature or Prakriti.
   ‐ N– They argued that coming together of nature and spiritual elements created the world.
5. Type:–
   - O– This view is considered to be a materialistic school of philosophy.
   - N– More spiritual school of Philosophy.

Question 4

Features of Samkhya school of Philosophy?

Answer 4

1. Samkhya or Sankhya means count.
2. Both original and new school argued that salvation could be attained through the acquisition of knowledge.
3. Believed in dualism or dvaitavada, i.e. the soul and matter are the separate entities. This concept is the basis of all real knowledge.
4. Knowledge can be acquired through three main concepts:–
   - Pratyaksha: Perception
   - Anumana: Inference
   - Shabda: Hearing.
5. The final philosophy argued that Prakriti and Purusha are the basis of reality and they are absolute and independent.
6. As Purusha is closer to the attributes of a male, it is associated with the consciousness and cannot be changed or altered.
7. The Prakriti consists of three major attributes: thought, movement and transformation. These attributes make it closer to the physiognomy of a woman.
8. Believed in theory of Rebirth and Transmigration of soul.

Question 5

Yoga School was founded by?

Answer 5

Yogasutra of Patanjali.

Question 6

Enumerate the Shada Darshana?

Answer 6

1. Samkhya School
2. Yoga School
3. Nyaya School
4. Vaisheshika School
5. Mimamsa School
6. Vedanta School

Question 7

Features of Yoga School?

Answer 7

1. Yoga means union of two major entities.
2. Human being can achieve salvation by combining meditation and physical application of yogic techniques.
3. Yoga techniques lead to the release of the Purusha from the Prakriti and leads to salvation.
4. Physical aspect has exercises called asanas.
5. Breathing exercises are called pranayams.
6. All these techniques help humans to control their mind, body and sensory organs.

Question 8

Means of achieving freedom— Meanings/Ways of achieving it. Yoga School?

Answer 8

• Yama– Practicing self control.
• Niyama– Observation of the rules governing one’s life.
• Pratyahara– Choosing an object.
• Dharna– Fixing the mind (over the chosen object).
• Dhyana– Concentrating on the above (above mentioned) chosen subject.
• Samadhi– It is the merging of the mind and the object that leads to final dissolution of the self.

Question 9

Nyaya School was founded by?

Answer 9

Gautama who is identified as the author of the Nyaya Sutra.

Question 10

Features of Nyaya School?

Answer 10

1. Believe in technique of logical thinking to achieve salvation.
2. They argue that acquiring real knowledge can only accrue salvation.
3. By using logical tools like Inference, hearing and analogy; a human being could verify the truth of a proposition or statement. Example:‐
   - There is fire in the jungle
   - Because there is emission of smoke
   - Everything that emits smoke has a component of fire in it.
4. They argued that the creation of the Universe was through God’s hands.
5. God not only created the universe but also sustained and destroyed it.
6. This philosophy constantly stressed on systematic thinking and reasoning.

Question 11

Vaisheshika school was founded by?

Answer 11

Kanada.

Question 12

Features of Vaisheshika school?

Answer 12

1. Believes in the physicality of the Universe.
2. Everything in the universe was created by the five main elements: fire, air, water, earth and ether (sky). These material elements are also called Dravya.
3. They argue that reality has many categories, for example, action, attribute, genus, inheritance, substance and distant quality.
4. They also developed the atomic theory, i.e. all material objects are made of atoms.
5. This school was responsible for the beginning of physics in Indian subcontinent.
6. Even though they argue for scientific thinking, they believe in god and conside him the guiding principal.
7. They also believe that the laws of karma guide this universe.
8. God decide the merits and demerits of our actions and man is sent to heaven or hell accordingly.
9. They also believe in salvation, but it was parallel to the creation and destruction of the universe, which was a cyclic process and was decided by the wishes of the God.

Question 13

Purva Mimamsa School was founded by?

Answer 13

Rishi Jaimini.

Question 14

Features of Mimamsa School?

Answer 14

1. ‘Mimamsa’ literally means the art of reasoning, interpretation and application.
2. This school focuses on the analysis of the texts of Samhita and Brahmana.
3. They argue that the Vedas contain the eternal truth and they are the repositories of all knowledge.
4. If one has to attain religious merit, acquire heaven and salvation, they would have to fulfill all the duties which are prescribed by the Vedas.
5. Emphasises on performing rituals to attain salvation.
6. It is necessary to understand the justification and reasoning behind Vedic rituals.
7. One’s actions were responsible for their merits and demerits and a person would enjoy the bliss of heaven as long as their meritorious acts lasted.
8. But they would not be free of the cycle of life and death. Once they achieve salvation, they would be able to break free from this unending cycle.
9. As most humans did not understand the rituals properly they would have to take assistance of the priests.
10. Therefore, this philosophy inherently legitimized the social distance between the various classes. This was used as a device by the Brahmans to maintain their clout over people and they continued to dominate the social hierarchy.

Question 15

Vedanta School (Uttar Mimamsa) was founded by?

Answer 15

Shankaracharya.

Question 16

Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta are associated with which school of philosophy?

Answer 16

Purva Mimamsa.

Question 17

The oldest text that formed the basis of Vedanta Philosophy was?

Answer 17

Brahmasutra of Badrayana.

Question 18

Features of Vedanta School?

Answer 18

1. Upholds the philosophies of life as elaborated in Upanishads.
2. Brahma is the reality of life and everything else is unreal or Maya.
3. Atma or the consciousness of self is similar to the brahma. This argument equalizes atma and brahma and if a person attains the knowledge of the self, he would automatically understand brahma and would achieve salvation.
4. Brahma and atma are indestructible and eternal.
5. Vedanta theory gave credence to the Theory of Karma.
6. They believed in the theory of Punarjanama or rebirth. They also argued that a person would have to bear the brunt of their actions from the previous birth in the next one.

Question 19

Difference between Shankaracharya and Ramanujan’s view on Vedanta School of Philosophy?

Answer 19

But the philosophy evolved in the 9th century AD through the philosophical intervention of Shankaracharya who wrote commentaries on the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. His changes led to the development of Advaita Vedanta. Another major philosopher of this school was Ramanujan who wrote in the 12th century AD. His intervention led to some differences in Vedanta school:-
- Shankaracharya considers brahma to be without any attributes (Nirguna) whereas Ramanujan considers brahma to possess certain attributes (Saguna)
- Shankaracharya considers Knowledge or jnana/gyan to be the main means of attaining salvation whereas Ramanujan considers loving the faith and practicing devotion as the path to attain salvation.

Question 20

Vinaya Pitaka was written by?

Answer 20

Disciple Upala.

Question 21

Sutta Pitaka was written by?

Answer 21

Disciple Ananda.

Question 22

Abhidhama Pitaka was written by?

Answer 22

Disciple Mahakashyap.

Question 23

Sub divisions of Heterodox school?

Answer 23

1. Buddhist Philosophy
2. Jain Philosophy
3. Charvaka School or Lokyata Philosophy.

Question 24

Jain Philosophy believed that all natural and supernatural things in this universe are based on seven fundamental elements that are?

Answer 24

1. Jiva
2. Ajivaa
3. Asrava
4. Bandha
5. Samvara
6. Nirjara
7. Moksha

Question 25

Charvaka School or Lokayata Philosophy was founded by?

Answer 25

Brihaspati.

Question 26

Charvaka School or Lokayata Philosophy is old enough to find mention in the Vedas and________ Upanishad.

Answer 26

Brihadarankya Upanishad.

Question 27

Features of Charvaka School or Lokayata Philosophy?

Answer 27

1. Main propounder of the materialistic view to achieve salvation.
2. Geared towards common people so named Lokayata.
3. Keen attachment to the physical and material world.
   4.They argued for a complete disregard of any world beyond this world that was inhabited by a person.
4. They denied the existence of any supernatural or divine agent who could regulate our conduct on earth.
5. They argued against the need to achieve salvation and also denied the existence of brahma and God.
6. They believed in anything that could be touched and be experienced by the human senses.
7. They argued against Gods and their representatives on the earth– the priestly class. They argued that a Brahman manufactures false rituals so as to acquire gifts (dakshina) from the followers.
8. Man is the centre of all activities and he should enjoy himself as long as he lives.
9. He should consume all earthly goods and indulge in sensual pleasure.
10. The Charvakas do not consider ‘ether’ as one of the five essential elements as it cannot be experienced through the perception. Hence, they say the universe consists of only four elements: fire, earth, water and air.
11. This school argues that there is no other world after this one, hence death is the end of a human being and pleasure should be the ultimate objective of life. Hence, they propound the theory of ‘eat, drink and make merry.

Question 28

Schools of Philosophy that propounded materialistic Philosophy?

Answer 28

1. Orthodox Schools
   - Samkhya
   - Vaisheshika (consider ether)
2. Heterodox School
   - Charvaka or Lokayata School (does not consider ether).

Question 29

Mathematics also called Ganita includes?

Answer 29

1. Arithmetic (Pattin Ganita/Anka Ganita)
2. Algebra (Bija Ganita)
3. Geometry (Rekha Ganita)
4. Astronomy (Khagolshastra)
5. Astrology (Jyotisa).

Question 30

1. The technique of algebra and the concept of zero originated in India.
2. Bijaganita was recognized as a parallel system of computation.
   True/false?

Answer 30

1. True
2. True.

Question 31

Earliest book on mathematics is?

Answer 31

Sulvasutra written by Baudhayana in the 6th century BC. There is a mention of ‘Pi’ and even some concepts very similar to Pythagoras theoram in the Sulvasutra.

Question 32

Role of Apastamba to mathematics?

Answer 32

Apastamba, in the second century BC, introduced the concepts of practical geometry involving acute angles, obtuse angles and right angles. This knowledge of angles helped in the construction of the fire altars in those times.

Question 33

Four sections of Aryabhattiya?

Answer 33

1. Method of denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets.
2. Number theory, geometry, trigonometry and Bijaganita.
   3 And 4. On Astronomy.

Question 34

What was Khagol Shastra?

Answer 34

Astronomy was also called Khagol shastra in old times. Khagol was the famous astronomical laboratory in Nalanda where Aryabhatta studied.

Question 35

Aims of studying astronomy in Aryabhatta’s book?

Answer 35

1. To get the accuracy of calendars.
2. To know the climate and rainfall patterns.
3. Navigation
4. To look at horoscope.
5. To have the knowledge about tides and stars. This helped in crossing deserts and seas by indicating the direction during night times.

Question 36

Aryabhatta’s contributions to science and mathematics?

Answer 36

1. Earth is round and it rotates on its own axis.
2. He formulated the area of triangle and discovered algebra.
3. Value of Pi given by Aryabhatta is much more accurate than that given by the Greeks.
4. Jyotisa part of Aryabhattiya deals with the methods of determining the true position of the planets, movement of the Sun and the Moon and the calculation of the eclipses.
5. In his book, the reasons for the eclipses given are that when the shadow of the Earth falls on the Moon while rotating on its own axis, the lunar eclipse occurs, and when the Moon’s shadow falls on the Earth, it results in solar eclipse. However, the orthodox theory previously explained that it was a process where the demon swallowed the planet.

Question 37

Arabs called mathematics ________.

Answer 37

Hindisat or the Indian art which was learnt by them from India.

Question 38

Brahmagupta’s contributions to science and mathematics?

Answer 38

1. In 7th century AD his book Brahmasputa Siddhantika mentioned Zero for the first time as a number.
2. He also introduced negative numbers and described them as debts and positive numbers as fortunes.

Question 39

Contribution of Mahaviracharya to science and mathematics?

Answer 39

1. In 9th century AD he wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha which is the first textbook on arithmetic in present day form.
2. He described in details the current method of finding Lowest Common Multiple. Therefore it was an invention not by John Napier but by Mahaviracharya in its actual form.

Question 40

Siddhanta Shiromani was written by?

Answer 40

Bhaskaracharya.

Question 41

Four sections of Siddhanta Shiromani are?

Answer 41

1. Lilavati (dealing with Arithmetic)
2. Beejganita (dealing with Algebra)
3. Goladhyaya (about sphere)
4. Grahaganita (mathematics of planets).

Question 42

Contribution of Bhaskaracharya to mathematics?

Answer 42

1. Siddhanta Shiromani was written by him.
2. A chakrawat method or the cyclic method to solve algebraic equations was introduced by him in his book Lilavati.

Question 43

In the nineteenth century, _______ translated Lilavati and made it known to the people across the globe.

Answer 43

James Taylor.

Question 44

Science and Mathematics in medieval period?

Answer 44

• Narayan Pandit produced works of mathematics which include Ganitakaumudi and Bijaganitavatamsa.
• Nilakantha Somasutvan wrote Tantrasamgraha, which contains the rules of trigonometric functions.
• Nilakanatha Jyotirvida compiled Tajik, dealing with a large number of Persian technical terms.
• Lilavati was translated into Persian by Faizi. Faizi, in the court of Akbar, translated Bhaskara’s Beejaganita. - Moreover, Akbar ordered to make mathematics as a subject of study in the education system during those times.
• In the field of astronomy, Feroz Shah Tughlaq established an observatory in Delhi and Feroz Shah Bahamani at Daulatabad.
• The court astronomer of Feroz shah Bahmani, Mahendra Suri, invented an astronomical instrument known as Yantaraja.
• Moreover, Sawai Jai Singh set up 5 astronomical observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Varanasi, Ujain and Mathura.

Question 45

Medicine in ancient India?

Answer 45

• During Vedic times, Ashwini Kumars practiced medicine.
• Dhanavantari was the God of medicine.
• Atharva Veda mentioned cure for diseases like diarrhoea, sores, cough, leprosy, fever and seizure.
• Takshila and Varanasi emerged as the centres for medicinal learning (Practical and more rational cure).
• Before Charak and Sushruta– Atreya and Agnivesa had already dealt with principles of Ayurveda way back in 800 BCE.
• Charak Samhita– use of plants and herbs for treatment.
• Three doshas: Bile, Phlegm and Wind were described by Charaka on which the functioning of human body depends.
• Charaka emphasize more on prevention rather than cure.
• Genetics also finds mention in Charak Samhita.
• Sushruta Samhita– deals with Surgery and Obstetrics.
• Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and Ophthalmology (ejection of cataract) described in Sushruta Samhita.
• Surgery was termed as Sastrakarma during those times.

Question 46

Medicine in medieval India?

Answer 46

• Sarangdhara Samhita emphasised on the use of opium in medicines and for urine examination in laboratories.
• Rasachikitsa system dealt with the treatment of diseases using mineral medicines.
• Unani system of medicine came to India from Greece with the book Firdausu hikmat written by Ali-bin-Rabban.

Question 47

Physics and Chemistry during ancient and medieval India?

Answer 47

• From the Vedic times, the materials on the Earth have been classified into panchbhootas. These panchmahabhootas were identified with human senses of perception.
• Earth (prithvi) with smell, Fire (agni) with vision, Air (maya) with feeling, Water (apa) with taste, Ether (akasha) with sound.
• Buddhist philosophers who came later rejected ether as one of the element and replaced it with life, joy and sorrow.
• Philosophers were of the view that except ether, all other four were physically palpable and therefore comprised miniscule particles of matter. The last miniscule matter which could not be further subdivided was called Parmanu.
• There are five different types of parmanu for five different elements. Hence it can be inferred that Indian philosophers conceived the idea of splitting an atom.
• Indian philosophers Kanada and Pakudha Katyayana in 6th century BC, first coined the idea of atoms and the material world being constituted of atoms. Kanada explained that material world is made up of kana which cannot be seen through human organ. They cannot be further subdivided and are indestructible as even said by the modern atomic theory.

Question 48

What were the areas of application of chemistry in ancient and medieval India?

Answer 48

1. Metallurgy (smelting of metals)
2. Distillation of perfumes
3. Making of dyes and pigments
4. Extraction of sugar
5. Production of paper
6. Production of gunpowder
7. Casting of canons, etc.

Question 49

Chemistry in ancient India?

Answer 49

• Chemistry was called Rasayan Shastra, Rasatantra, Rasa Vidya and Rasakriya, all of which means science of liquids.
• Chemical laboratories were called Rasakriya Shala and chemist was referred to as rasadanya.
• The development of metallurgy started in India from the Bronze Age. It is possible that India had borrowed this idea from Mesopotamia.
• The best evidences of Indian metallurgy are Iron pillar of Mehrauli in Delhi and an idol of Gautama Buddha in Sultanganj, Bihar. They have not caught rust yet even after their manufacture more than thousands of years back.
• One of the famous alchemist of ancient times was Nagarjuna. He was an expert in transforming the base metals into gold.
• Born in Gujarat in 931 AD, Nagarjuna was blessed with this power of changing base metals into gold and extraction of “Elixir of life”.
• He wrote a treatise Rasaratnakara, a book on chemistry and is in the form of dialogue between him and the Gods. He also discussed the trans mutation of base metals into gold.
• Nagarjuna also wrote Uttaratantra which is a supplement to Sushruta Samhita and deals with preparation of medicinal drugs.
• The preservation of ancient literature was generally done on palm leaves.

Question 50

Chemistry in medieval India?

Answer 50

• Rasarnava a Sanskrit text was written in medieval period (12th century) and deals with Tantrism. It works on tantra deals with metallurgy preparations and alchemy under chemistry.
• Use of paper began in the medieval period.
• After the advent of Mughals, the manufacture of gunpowder and its use in guns also started in India. Saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal were used in different ratios to produce different, varieties of gunpowder.
• The casting of cannons is explicitly mentioned in Tujuk-i-Baburi.
• Ain-i-Akbari discusses the regulation of perfume office” of Akbar. Mother of Noorjahan is credited with the discovery of attar of roses.
• In the field of geology, hydrology and ecology, the contribution of Varahamihira cannot be forgotten. He lived in the Gupta period and was among the nine gems in the court of
  Vikramaditya. His predictions were so accurate that king Vikramaditya awarded him with the title of “Varaha”. He claimed that presence of termites (Deemak) and plants could indicate the presence of water in that particular area. A list of six animals and thirty-six plants was given by him who could indicate the presence of water.
• The earth cloud theory was also propounded by him in his book Brihat Samhita.

Question 51

Ship building and Navigation in ancient India?

Answer 51

1. Yukti Kalpa Taru is a treatise in Sanskrit which deals with the various techniques used in ship building during ancient times.
2. The ships were primarily classified into two classes:
   - Samanya (Ordinary class)
   - Vishesha (special class)
3. The ordinary class is for a sea voyage and had two types of ships:
   - Dirgha type of ship - long and narrow hull
   - Unnata type of ship -higher hull
4. According to length and the position of cabins, the ships were classified into:
   - Sarvamandira vessels - cabins extending from one end of the deck to another, used for transportation of royal voyage and horses.
   - Madhyamandira - cabins in the middle part of the deck, for pleasure trips.
   - Agramandira - vessels used for warfare.
5. Some of the Sanskrit terminologies used during ancient times for various parts of the ship are:
   - Anchor of the ship - Nava bandhan kilaha
   - Sail– Vata vastra
   - Rudder of the ship - Jeni pata or karna
   - Keel of the ship - Nava tala
   - Compass of the ship - Machayantra or fish machine (in the shape of a fish).

Question 52

Two famous sports of India during ancient times?

Answer 52

• Kalaripayat: It was a martial art from Kerala which was transmitted to China in 5th century BC by a sage called Bodhidharma. The present form of Judo and karate did originate from Kalaripayat.
• Chess: The game was known as “Chaturanga” meaning four bodies. It was played with counters and Aksha (dice). It was also called Astapada meaning game of eight steps. Chaturanga finds its mention in the famous epic Mahabharata where this game was played between Kauravas and the Pandavas.