Aggression - Paper 3

Question 1

What are neural mechanisms in aggression?

Answer 1

• The limbic system
• Serotonin

Question 2

What is the limbic system? (neural)

Answer 2

A set of structures in the brain including: cingulate gyrus, hypothalamus and amygdala. The amygdala has been linked to how humans and animals assess threats in the environment and how they respond emotionally to these threats.

Evidence from fMRI scans have shown that damage or under-activity in the pre-frontal cortex leads to a lack of control over the limbic system, meaning people show sudden aggressive responses to perceived threats in the environment.
Overactivity in the amygdala has the same effect, if activated, people show high levels of aggression

Question 3

How does serotonin influence aggression? (neural)

Answer 3

It is a neurotransmitter associated with communication of impulses between neurons and has an inhibitory effect on the brain. Low levels have been liked to poor self-control and impulsive behaviours including aggression

Question 4

What does Virkkunen et al say about serotonin and aggression? (neural)

Answer 4

Aggressive behaviours are split into impulsive (hot-tempered/sudden) or non impulsive (cold, calculated). Low serotonin explains why people ‘flip’ and lose control over their aggression.
Evidence comparing the cerebrospinal fluid of violent-impulsive and violent non-impulsive offenders who significantly lower levels of serotonin metabolite in the violent-impulsive group, suggesting that their nervous system was in an excited state (fight or flight)

Question 5

How do hormones effect aggression? (hormonal)

Answer 5

Males or more aggressive than females leading to people looking into testosterone. Testosterone is responsible for the development of masculine features during puberty such as height, build, deep voice, body hair and thought to be linked to aggression.
Evidence suggests that the prevalence of aggressive behaviours tend to correlate with fluctuating testosterone levels and males show more aggressive behaviours than females. When testosterone is reduced through castration, then number of aggressive behaviours also lower.

Question 6

What are the strengths for neural explanations for aggression?

Answer 6

• Supporting evidence of role of amygdala: key in how we assess and respond to environmental threats. Gospic et al carried out fMRI in ps in lab-based game that provoked aggression. Scans showed aggressive reactions were associated with a fast and heightened response by the amygdala. Benzodiazepine taken before the game halved the number of aggressive reactions and decreased amygdala activity.
• Supporting evidence showing drugs that increase serotonin activity reduce aggressive behaviour: Berman et al split ps into two conditions where ps were given either a placebo or a dose of paroxetine. Ps then took part in a lab based game where they gave and received electric shocks in response to provocation. The placebo group gave more intense shocks than the group given paroxetine because the paroxetine group had experienced an increase in their serotonin levels. This was only true of ps who had a prior history of aggressive behaviour showing link between serotonin and aggression. LOW SEROTONIN CAN LEAD TO AGGRESSION, INCREASING CAN LOWER AGGRESSION
• Supporting evidence from case studies: Phineas Gage - damage to the limbic structures in his brain supporting the idea of the limbic system controlling aggression. Phineas Gage’s personality changed and he became more aggressive

Question 7

What are the positive evaluation points for hormonal mechanisms of aggression?

Answer 7

• Supporting evidence from animal studies: Giammanco et al showed experimental increases in testosterone are related to aggression. Castration studies leading to a decrease in tesoterone and therefore a reduction in aggressive behaviour. This is a strength because it shows a direct link between testosterone and aggression in animals
• Evidence from Dabbs et al: They measured testosterone in the saliva of criminals and found those with the highest levels had a history of primarily violent crimes, whereas those with the lowest levels had committed only non-violent crimes. This suggests that testosterone levels may have caused this difference in aggression

Question 8

What are the negative evaluation points for hormonal mechanisms of aggression?

Answer 8

Deterministic as findings are correlational may be due to a combination of factors not just low serotonin or damage to the limbic system

Question 9

What are the genetic factors in aggression? (genes)

Answer 9

Twin studies, Adoption studies and MAOA genes

Question 10

How do twin studies show genetic influences in aggression?

Answer 10

Twin studies have compared the aggression levels of MZ and DZ twins. The higher the concordance rate for aggressive behaviour between the twins, the higher the likelihood that their behaviour was biologically determined. Coccaro et al found in male ps with a history of physical assault, there was 50% concordance for MZ twins and 19% for DZ corresponding with their genetic profile. However cannot be purely genetic because otherwise would be 100%, Mz twins are also treated as more alike

Question 11

How do adoption studies show genetic influences in aggression?

Answer 11

Rutter et al: compared the aggressive behaviour of adoptees to that of their biological parents (nature) and adoptive parents (nurture). Research suggests that criminality and aggression does have some inherited factors, as the participants’ aggressive history was more similar to their estranged biological parents. Inherited factors could explain around 41% variance compared to adoptive parents

Question 12

How does the MAOA gene show genetic influences in aggression?

Answer 12

MAOA is an enzyme which breaks down neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline. Some develop an under active MAOA gene (Warrior gene) which only produce low levels of the MAOA enzyme which means there are higher levels of the neurotransmitters in these people’s brains. MAOA-L (low variant) has been associated with high levels of aggressive behaviour, hence showing inherited behaviour of a ‘warrior’

Question 13

What are the positive evaluation points of genetic factors that influence aggression?

Answer 13

• Supporting evidence from animals: Godar et al used genetic depletion techniques to ‘knockout’ the MAOA activity in mice. When the mice had the MAOA gene ‘knockout’, they showed increased serotonin levels in the brain and hyper aggression. When the mice were given an SSRI they reverted back to their non-aggressive behaviours. This highlights the link between MAOA and serotonin activity
  However findings may only be applicable to explaining aggression in animals rather than humans
• Brunner et al studied 28 members of a Dutch family who all had a history of impulsively violent and aggressive behaviours, Findings showed that all these men had the ‘warrior gene’ (MAOA-L) which had led to low levels of the MAOA variant in their brains and thus high levels of serotonin and noradrenaline. This is good because it could help to identify individuals at risk of becoming violent

Question 14

What are the negative evaluation points of genetic factors that influence aggression?

Answer 14

• Some research has identified low MAOA is linked to aggression but only in individuals who have experienced early trauma. Frazzetto et al (2007) found an association between antisocial aggression and Low MAOA gene variant in adult males but only in those who experienced significant trauma (e.g. sexual or physical abuse) during the first 15 year of life. Those who had not experienced trauma were not especially aggressive as adults even if they possessed the low-activity gene variant. Suggesting that a genetic explanation alone cannot fully account for aggression and therefore a diathesis stress explanation may be more appropriate. Furthermore, twin studies e.g. Coccaro et al (1997) found concordance rates for direct physical aggression in MZ twins is 50% and DZ twins is 19%. This shows that genes alone cannot fully explain aggressive behaviour.
• An issue of the genetic explanation is that twin studies may lack validity. Twins will share the same environment as each other however MZ twins tend to treated more similarly than DZ twins, especially by parents. This means the concordance rates may be inflated and the genetic influences on aggression may not be as high as the twin studies suggest.

Question 15

What are the ethological explanations of aggression?

Answer 15

• Adaptive functions of aggression
• Ritualistic aggression
• Innate releasing mechanisms and Fixed action patterns

Question 16

What are adaptive functions of aggression? (ethological)

Answer 16

An adaptive response which is beneficial for survival is when two members of the same species fight, they rarely kill their opponent but instead defeat them, and the victor gains territory, resources and mates.

Aggression serves a purpose of establishing social hierarchies within a group of animals. The most dominant male will exert power over the others in the social group, gaining special status such as being given the first opportunity to feed after a hunt, or having mating rights over the females. This can be seen in many animal species, including chimpanzees and lions.

Question 17

What is ritualistic aggression? (ethological)

Answer 17

Carrying out certain behaviours in a specific set order. For example through certain ritualistic displays of aggression which occur before a physical fight. These techniques are used to scare off the opponent before it reaches the point of physical aggression; e.g. bearing teeth or claws, growling, roaring, and showing threatening body posture.

Lorenz identified ritualistic behaviours of a defeated animal, for example, cowering or whimpering. Chimps who lose a fight offer a subordinate hand display and lower their head to the victor. Wolves who are defeated expose their neck to show that the victor could rip out their throat with one bite and kill them if they wished. It is very rare that the victor would actually kill their opponent as this would affect their own genetic blood line, therefore these rituals work to clearly display the winner of the fight.

Question 18

What are innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action patterns? (ethological)

Answer 18

Built-in physiological processes or structures, for example particular circuits in the brain, which are triggered by environmental stimuli. Once triggered, IRMs activate a certain sequence of behaviours which an animal is compelled to carry out; Fixed Action Patterns. Lea identified the main features of FAPs

Question 19

What are the main features of FAPs? (ethological)

Answer 19

B - Ballistic: an inevitable course which much be completed
R - Response: to a specific stimulus that is viewed as a physical threat
U - Universal: to the specials
S - Stereotypical: unchanging sequences of behaviour
H - Hasn’t: been learnt

Question 20

What are the positive evaluation points for ethological explanations for aggression?

Answer 20

Supporting evidence showing the role of IRMs and FAPs. Tinbergen found when male sticklebacks were presented with a seis of models, the sticklebacks would attack it in the same way, regardless of the shape of the model. If it had a red spot but would not attack it if no red spot was present, even if the model looked like a realistic stickleback. Supports the idea that members of the same species have an IRM that is triggered by a sign stimulus and supports features of FAPs. The FAPs were unchanging from one encounter to another and the attack always ran its course to completion

Question 21

What are the negative evaluation points for ethological explanations for aggression?

Answer 21

• Idea that behaviour patterns are fixed has been criticised. Hunt argued that Lorenz underestimated the role of the environment in developing these behaviour patterns and that learning and experience interacts with innate factors to produce subtle variations in behaviour. Members of the same species have been shown to differ in the duration of each behaviour, and even the same animal from one encounter to another. This is a problem that led to ethologists to move away from the term FAPs replacing it with Behaviour Pattern to reflect that these behaviours can be modified by experience
• Evidence against ideal of ritualistic aggression. Goodall observed chimpanzees at a national park in Tanzania. The aggression of two rival communities of male chimps was not impulsive but coordinated and planned like a military operation to te point that she dubbed it the ‘four-year war’. One group of males systematically slaughtered the other community in a gang fashion, holding down individual chimps and carrying out prolonged attacks. They ignored the victim’s signals of defencelessness and defeat, hitting and biting them until they were dead. This is a weakness because it questions the idea that animal aggression is often ritualistic rather than real
• Findings cannot be generalised to human aggression. Animals are qualitatively different to humans in their aggression. Tinbergen studied fish, Lorenz studied birds and mammals. Both researchers extrapolated their findings to try to explain human aggression. Humans are more complex than animals and show a range of different aggressive behaviours; active or passive, impulsive or calculated. It would be invalid to compare human aggression directly to animal. Therefore these findings may not be able to explain the complex and less predictable ways humans show aggression

Question 22

What are the evolutionary explanations of human aggression?

Answer 22

Sexual competition and sexual jealousy

Question 23

How does sexual competition lead to human aggression? (evolutionary)

Answer 23

Ancestral males seeking access to females would have had to compete with other males. One way of eliminating this competition would have been through aggression. The successful individual would have increased their social status and been ore successful in acquiring and protecting their mates from competing males and so would be more successful in passing on their genes to the offspring. This would then have led to the development of a genetically transmitted tendency for males to be more aggressive to other males

Question 24

What do evolutionary psychologists argue about aggression?

Answer 24

That it is adaptive as it would have been effective for solving a number of survival and reproductive issues among early humans. Acquiring and defending resources, intimidating or eliminating male rivals for females, and deterring mates from sexual infidelity. Solving these problems enhance the survival and reproductive success of the individual and therefore these behaviours would have spread through the gene pool, becoming common amongst all humans

Question 25

How does sexual jealousy lead to human aggression? (evolutionary)

Answer 25

Aggression arises as a result of paternal uncertainty. Unlike women, men can never be entirely certain that they are the fathers of their children. Therefore men are always at risk of ‘cuckoldry’. Wilson and Daly identified several mate retention strategies used by males

Question 26

What are the mate retention strategies used by males? (evolutionary)

Answer 26

Direct guarding - vigilance over their partner, keeping tabs on them to ensure they are not seeing other men
Negative inducements - threatening their partners if they act in a way which he doesn’t want them to

Question 27

What are the positive evaluation points for evolutionary explanations for human aggression?

Answer 27

• Supporting evidence that aggression may be motivated by a response to the threat of sexual jealousy and/or sexual competition: Shackelford et al (2005) investigated intimate partner violence (IPV) in heterosexual couples. 107 married couples who had been married for less than one year completed questionnaires about their relationship. Men completed the ‘Mate Retention Inventory’ where they rated how likely they were to use different mate retention techniques (e.g. Direct Guarding). Women completed the ‘Spouse Influence Report’ where they rated the extent of their partner’s violence in the relationship.
  They found a strong positive correlation between the men’s reports of their mate retention techniques and the women’s reports of their partner’s aggressive behaviour. This is a strength because it supports predictions from the explanation about aggression being caused by the threat of infidelity, cuckoldry and that aggression can have an adaptive value.
• Further support from crime data: Male sexual jealousy is claimed to be the single most common motivation for killings in domestic disputes in the US (Daly et al, 1982) and sexual jealousy is reported to account for 17% of cases of murder in the UK (Dell, 1984). This seems to show that there is a large body of evidence from controlled research and criminal statistics that support the link between sexual infidelity in males, jealousy and increased aggression.
• Account for gender differences: Males are physically bigger and stronger than women, and use aggressive behaviours to gain resources and assert their dominance. Women feel like they have ‘more to lose’ in a fight, and don’t want to risk their own survival or that of their children so avoid situations involving physical aggression and resort to verbal aggression to resolve disputes. This is a strength of evolutionary explanations of aggression because they can explain why men are more likely to be aggressive than women, particularly physically violent.

Question 28

What are the negative evaluation points for evolutionary explanations of aggression?

Answer 28

• Cultural differences: If aggression is due to evolutionary principles, we would expect all humans to universally show the same levels of aggressive behaviours regardless of upbringing, however there are clear differences. The iKung San look down on those who use aggression and will extradite those who use violence against another member of the tribe. However, the Yanomamo use aggression as status – a female will only marry a member of the tribe if he has proven himself to be a strong warrior (e.g. by killing an enemy). These examples demonstrate a weakness of evolutionary explanations of aggression because it seems likely these aggressive/non-aggressive behaviours have been influenced by socialisation and cultural norms rather than a result of an evolved instinctive way of dealing with rivals.

Question 29

What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis? (frustration-aggression)

Answer 29

Dollard (1939) originated the Frustration Aggression Hypothesis based on psychodynamic beliefs about the role of catharsis in aggression. According to this hypothesis, aggression usually occurs in an outburst after a person feels that their actions or goals are being blocked by some obstacle. Catharsis is about relieving feelings of frustration; aggression makes a person feel better when they have an opportunity to vent or ‘let off steam’.

Question 30

What is indirect expression? (frustration-aggression)

Answer 30

Often the person cannot express their true feelings of anger directly at the obstacle causing the frustration. For instance, it may be a person in higher power than them (e.g. a boss, a teacher) or it could be anger at a situational factor (e.g. the weather, the economy). People therefore use the defence mechanism, displacement, to direct their anger at someone, or something else. Aggression can be expressed physically (e.g. punching a wall), verbally (e.g. screaming into a pillow), or through a fantasy (e.g. acting out with a friend what you want to say to your boss).

Question 31

What are the factors in the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

Answer 31

The hypothesis, indirect expression and environmental cues

Question 32

What are the environmental cues in aggression? (frustration-aggression)

Answer 32

Berkowitz (1989) suggested that frustration does not make us instantly aggressive, but may create a ‘readiness’ for aggression. When people feel frustrated this heightens their emotional state meaning they are more likely to act on impulse if prompted by an environmental cue. For example, someone is more likely to snap at an annoying friend if they are having ‘a bad day’ but they might not have shown aggression if they hadn’t seen the friend. This shows that aggressive behaviour from internal anger can be triggered by external factors.

Question 33

What are the strengths for the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

Answer 33

• Supporting evidence for role of frustration: Green (1968)
  Aims: To investigate the effects of frustration on aggression in a lab setting.
  Procedures: In the first part of the experiment, male university students were asked to complete a jigsaw puzzle while frustration (Independent Variable) was altered in different conditions:
  Group One – the puzzle was impossible to solve.
  Group Two – another ‘student’ (confederate) kept interfering causing them to run out of time.
  Group Three – the confederate kept insulting the participant for not being able to solve the puzzle.
  Second part - participants were given the opportunity to give electric shocks to the confederate when they made a mistake on another task.
  Findings: On average, Group Three gave the most electric shocks and Group One gave the least electric shocks. Green also repeated the study using a non-frustrated control group who were the least likely of all conditions to give any electric shocks. This supports the idea that people are more aggressive the more they are feeling frustrated.
• Supporting evidence for role of environmental cues: Berkowitz and LePage (1967) Procedures: Students were given electric shocks by a confederate to induce feelings of frustration. Participants were later given the chance to shock the confederate in return. Half of the participants were randomly allocated to a condition where two guns were present on a table next to the shock machine. Findings: Participants in the ‘weapon’ condition gave an average of 6.07 shocks which was significantly higher than the control group (no weapons) who gave an average of 4.67 shocks. This research suggests frustration causes a readiness to aggress i.e. pull the trigger.

Question 34

What are the negative evaluation points for the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

Answer 34

• Evidence that aggression doesn’t have a cathartic effect: Bushman (2002) found participants who vented anger by repeatedly hitting a punch bag became more aggressive rather than less aggressive. He concluded that venting to reduce anger is like using petrol to put out a fire. This is a weakness of the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis as it criticises the validity. It could be that exposing someone to aggression increases their likelihood of future aggressive behaviours.
• Individual differences: Some people are more pessimistic in nature and are more likely to experience emotions of self-defeat, depression or guilt rather than feeling angry or aggressive. Equally, some people act aggressively for reasons that don’t seem to be associated to frustration. This is a weakness of the frustration aggression hypothesis as it cannot help us to predict when aggression will occur as aggression does not always follow feelings of frustration.

Question 35

What are the social learning processes in aggression?

Answer 35

Indirect and direct learning, cognitive control and self-efficacy

Question 36

What is direct and indirect learning? (social learning)

Answer 36

SLT suggests that direct learning of aggression happens through operant conditioning, for example, a child who angrily snatches a toy from their sibling and receives no reprimand or punishment for their behaviour will learn that aggression leads to rewards. We can learn aggression indirectly (vicariously); if the child’s friend watched this aggressive behaviour, they might be motivated to imitate, believing they too will not be punished. Children observe the behaviours of their role models and are motivated to imitate these behaviours, particularly if it seems to lead to positive consequences. Therefore, SLT would suggest that if a child witnesses aggressive behaviours from role models (e.g. parents, peers, media) they are more likely to act aggressively than a child who has not observed aggression, or one who has seen people being punished for aggression.

Question 37

What is cognitive control? (social learning)

Answer 37

Bandura also acknowledged that people do not passively imitate aggression and have some cognitive control over their actions, so he focused on the following mediational processes involved in social learning.

Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation

Question 38

What is self-efficacy? (social learning)

Answer 38

Self-efficacy is whether a person is confident that their behaviour will lead to a particular goal. If a child regularly uses aggression to reach their goal (e.g. to take a toy from another child) then they learn how much force or aggression is necessary and become confident in using their own physical strength as a means of getting what they want. Each time they successfully achieve their goal, their self-efficacy grows, meaning they believe that as aggression has worked for them in the past, it will solve similar problems in the future.

Question 39

What are the positive evaluation points for social learning theory of aggression?

Answer 39

• Supporting evidence from Bandura: found Children who had observed the aggressive behaviours of an adult model in a video, imitated almost identically (same actions, same language, etc) what they had seen and acted aggressively towards the Bobo Doll. A control group who had not watched the aggressive role models, did not act aggressively. A replication of Bandura’s research showed the adult being rewarded or punished for their aggressive behaviour. Children who observed an adult being rewarded were four times more likely to be aggressive than those who saw the model being punished. These findings demonstrate support for several key aspects of SLT including the role of vicarious reinforcement in the learning of aggressive behaviour.
• Real-life application: SLT has real-life application to everyday aggression. Cases such as the Columbine High School Massacre and the Jamie Bulger murder which the media have dubbed ‘copycat killings’, where children have observed violence in films and then imitated them on victims in real life. OFCOM have brought out age restrictions on certain media, as well as the watershed to censor some aggression being witnessed by children, implying that they do believe the children may imitate the aggressive behaviours that they observe. This is a strength because this application of SLT as an explanation of aggression has been used to help improve society by limiting young peoples exposure to aggressive models and using prosocial role models whose behaviour is being reinforced.
• Scientific: The theory focuses on observable and measurable behaviour which can be tested in controlled conditions. For example, Bandura’s bobo doll research is highly controlled and the learning demonstrated by the children was clear to observe and measure. This is a strength as it means the SLT explanation of aggression is supported by empirical evidence.

Question 40

What are the negative evaluation points for social learning theory of aggression?

Answer 40

Meditational processes cannot be observed which means factors like attention and motivation have to be inferred. This is a problem as this inference could be mistaken meaning we cannot empirically measure all aspects of the SLT explanation of aggression

Question 41

What are the social psychological explanations of aggression?

Answer 41

Frustration-aggression hypothesis, SLT and deindividuation

Question 42

What are the factors involved in deindividuation?

Answer 42

Factors leading to deindividuation and self-awareness

Question 43

What are the factors that lead to deindividuation?

Answer 43

Deindividuation is a term coined by LeBon (1895) to explain why some people lose their sense of personal responsibility, for example when in a crowd, in a uniform or disguise. If the individual feels anonymous, they feel less responsible for their actions and are more likely to go along with the group behaviour, which often includes acting aggressively towards rival groups. This is commonly known as ‘mob mentality’ where people stop thinking like they normally would as an individually and instead act aggressively as part of the faceless crowd

Question 44

What is self-awareness in deindividuation?

Answer 44

Prentice-Dunn and Rogers (1982) explained the link between aggression and deindividuation in terms of two types of self-awareness: private and public self-awareness

Question 45

What is private self-awareness?

Answer 45

This regards paying attention to our own thoughts, feelings, and behaviour, something we monitor when we are acting on our own. This is restricted when in a crowd as our attention is focused outwardly rather than inwardly, meaning we are more perceptive of environmental factors such as the mood of the crowd, and absorb that energy, including aggression.

Question 46

What is public self-awareness?

Answer 46

This concerns how much we care about other people’s judgement and opinion of our behaviour, and this is also reduced in crowds. We believe that others would be less likely to identify us for our actions, and so the consequences seem less likely, meaning we are more likely to behave aggressively and not feel accountable for it.

Question 47

What are the positive evaluation points of deindividuation as an explanation for aggression?

Answer 47

• Supporting evidence: Zimbardo’s (1969) in his ‘Stanford Prison Experiment’ demonstrated that when people lose their sense of identity, they become disinhibited; stop monitoring and regulating their behaviour, forget about potential consequences for their actions and act impulsively and emotionally. This can ultimately lead people to carry out violent and aggressive acts that they never would have thought themselves capable of.
  Further support for deindividuation leading to aggressive behaviour comes from Dodd (1985) who asked 229 of his undergraduate Psychology students to anonymously answer the following question: ‘If you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held responsible, what would you do?’ Three independent raters who were not aware of the hypothesis then read the answers and categorised them.
  Dodd found 36% of the responses were classed as antisocial. 26% were actual criminal acts, the most common was to ‘rob a bank’. Some responses were very violent such as murder, rape or assassination of a political figure. Only 9% of responses were prosocial or helpful. This research suggests anonymity leads to a higher chance of aggression
• Real life application: Douglas and McGarty (2001) looked at aggression online, in chatrooms and instant messaging. They found a strong correlation between anonymity (i.e. fake profiles, decrypted usernames) and sending threatening messages to other users. This shows that people are more likely to act aggressively online (e.g. Troll) when they feel anonymous. This is exactly what the theory predicts i.e. people do not self-monitor when part of a group in chatrooms and therefore can be more aggressive because they take on the mood of the group and do not feel personally identifiable.

Question 48

What are the negative evaluation points of deindividuation as an explanation for aggression?

Answer 48

Research has demonstrated that de-individuation can lead to pro-social rather than anti-social behaviour like aggression: Johnson and Downing (1979) found, in a replication of Zimbardo’s electric shock study, that participants shocked more than a control group when dressed like the Ku Klux Klan, but actually shocked less than controls when dressed in nurses uniforms. This suggests that aggressive behaviour is dependent upon the norms associated with the uniform as opposed to the uniforms themselves.

Question 49

What is the dispositional explanation for institutional aggression? (Importation model)

Answer 49

Dispositional explanations for aggression focus on the personality factors that the people have before they enter prison and how this might prime them for aggression inside the institution. The Importation Model was devised by Irwin and Cressey (1962) who believed there are certain factors that criminals ‘import’ into prison that lead to aggression such as; beliefs, values, norms, attitudes, as well as personal characteristics such as gender, race, and class.

Statistically, most aggressive inmates tend to be young ethnic minority males from lower class backgrounds; this could be due to a variety of reasons (e.g. biological – testosterone, evolutionary – exerting power and status, social learning – imitation of personal experiences). There is also higher aggression levels shown by prisoners who had issues such as addictions, or were members of gangs before being arrested. These groups’ aggression levels within the prison environment mirror their behaviour before they entered the prison, and often a history of impulsive aggression and violence is the reason they were sent to prison in the first place.

Question 50

What are the positive evaluation points for dispositional explanations for institutional aggression?

Answer 50

• Supporting evidence: Poole and Regoli (1983) found that the best indicator of violence amongst juvenile offenders was their level of pre-institutional violence, regardless of any situational factors (or ‘deprivations’) in the institution. This suggests the importation model may be a stronger explanation of institutional aggression than the deprivation model.
• Supporting evidence for importation: : DeLisi et al (2011) studied 813 juvenile delinquents in Californian institutions who imported with them, a range of negative dispositional features, including; experience of childhood trauma or abuse, addictions, and anger. A positive correlation was observed; inmates with the most negative dispositional features were the most likely to be brought in front of the parole board for being aggressive in the institution. Compared to a control group, they were also more likely to engage in self-harm and suicide. This is a positive because it can provide an insight for which individuals are more likely to be aggressive based on their characteristics before entering prison. This can be an important practical application because these individuals could receive targeted support as soon as they enter the institution. Fischer (2001) found that isolating known gang members in a special management unit reduced the rates of serious assault by 50%. This suggests research into the importation model can help to reduce prison violence.
• Practical applications: mental health support, anger management and addiction support

Question 51

What are the situational explanations of institutional aggression? (Deprivation model)

Answer 51

Situational explanations for aggression focus on the prison environment itself and how the harsh conditions cause stress and strain for the prisoners, leading them to retaliate by acting aggressively. The Deprivation Model was devised by Clemmer (1958) who identified a number of deprivations experienced by prisoners which correlated with aggression; Freedom, Independence, Material Goods, Safety and Intimacy.

When a person has their regular routine and luxuries taken away, this leads to a loss of social norms (anomie) so they adopt behaviours of others rather than acting like they normally would, leading to some deindividuation and in turn aggression. Prisons that are overcrowded and regularly use punishments such as ‘lock-ups’ or taking away luxuries such as ‘TV time’ are more likely to experience prisoners acting aggressively. Deprivation of material goods and services can also lead to frustration and competition, so aggression becomes a means of solving this problem.

L - Liberty
Au - Autonomy (independence)
G - Goods and services
H - Heterosexual relationships
S - Security

Question 52

What are the positive evaluation points for situational explanations for institutional aggression?

Answer 52

• Practical applications: Improve security - if they feel safe, won’t need to protect themselves, token economies
• Supporting evidence: Bierie (2011) took a stratified sample of prison staff from all 117 US federal bureau of prisons and gave them a questionnaire on conditions at their prison. This was matched to prison records of violence. The results showed extreme inmate violence was significantly higher in prisons with poor physical conditions such as noise level, poor hygiene and a lack of privacy for inmates as well as in prisons with more white staff and few female staff. These findings are a strength of the situational explanation of aggression because they suggest that the actual prison environment itself can influence the level of violence in prison.
• Further practical applications: In the early 1990s, Wilson set up two units at HMP Woodhill that were less ‘claustrophobic’ and gave a view of the outside world, masked prison noise with music from a local radio station and lowered the temperature so it was no longer so extremely hot. It was found that these changes virtually eradicated assaults on prison staff and other inmates. This suggests that the deprivation model can be used to help improve safety and security for staff and inmates alike by improving the prison environment.

Question 53

What are the types of studies in media influences on aggression?

Answer 53

Experimental, correlational and meta-analysis

Question 54

What are the negative evaluation points for situational explanations for institutional aggression?

Answer 54

• Contradictory research: Hensley et al (2002) studied two prisons in Mississippi where inmates were allowed ‘conjugal visits’, meaning they were not deprived of sexual intimacy with their romantic partner. These prisons had the same levels of aggression as those who did not allow conjugal visits. This is a problem as it suggests the deprivation of heterosexual relationships does not affect prison violence.

Question 55

What are the experimental studies of media influences?

Answer 55

Bartholow and Anderson (2002)
Procedures: Student volunteers were randomly allocated to one of two conditions; they either played a violent game ‘Mortal Kombat’ or a non-violent game ‘PGA Tournament Golf’ for ten minutes then carries out a standard task that measures aggression (delivering blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to an opponent).
Findings and conclusions: Those who played the violent game gave significantly louder blasts of noise to their
opponent (mean of 6.0 compared to 4.6 decibels). It was concluded that violent computer games can cause an
immediate increase in aggressive behaviour.

Question 56

What are the correlational studies of media influences?

Answer 56

DeLisi et al (2013)
Procedures: Used structured interviews to study 227 juvenile offenders with histories of serious aggression such as hitting a teacher, parent, or gang fighting.
Findings and conclusions: The offenders’ aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games, and how much they enjoyed them. It was concluded that computer game violence is a serious risk factor for aggression.

Question 57

What are the meta-analysis studies of media influences?

Answer 57

Greitemeyer and Mugge (2014) performed a meta-analysis of 98 studies and found that violent video game use was linked to an increase in aggression whilst
exposure to prosocial games was linked to an increase in prosocial behaviour.
It was concluded that a range of evidence supports the link between violent computer games and aggression.

Question 58

What are the positive evaluation points of media influences on aggression?

Answer 58

• Lab experiments: This means the research is conducted in the controlled setting of a laboratory which allows extraneous variables to be controlled. For example, the type of violent game played and for how long. This is a strength as the research has high internal validity. It is therefore it is more likely we can make a cause and effect conclusion i.e. to say that it is the playing of an aggressive computer game that has led to the aggressive behaviour.
• Practical applications: This means it shows the negative effects violent media can have, but also the positive influence prosocial media can have on people which can be used to ensure the media has a positive influence on society. For example, greater censorship of aggressive media and promotion of prosocial media (e.g. computer games where the aim is to help others) may well have positive effects on people. This is positive as ongoing research can help ensure the media is a force for good in society as much as possible.

Question 59

What are the negative evaluation points of media influences on aggression?

Answer 59

• Lab experiments: researchers have not measured ‘real-life’ aggression. This means that ethical issues have restricted researchers to alternative measures of aggression. For example, administering ‘noise blasts’ has been used in place of real aggression which is very different, not least because it does not involve any fear of retaliation. This is a problem as the research may not represent real-life aggression.
• Overstated effects of media: This means, although many results have been significant, they typically report only small-medium effect sizes. Furthermore, when focusing on the small of number of studies that measure aggression towards another person (as opposed to alternative measures), the influence of the media on aggression is actually close to zero.
  This suggests the influence of the media on aggression many be much smaller than is often thought
• Correlational studies: This means that correlations only establish a relationship between two co-variables but cannot say that one co-variable ‘caused’ the change in the other. For example, although they might seem to show that violent computer games cause people to become more aggressive, they might also only show that people who are already aggressive select aggressive media. This is problematic as it limits the extent to which the researcher can draw firm conclusions from the research.

Question 60

What is desensitisation in aggression?

Answer 60

Physiological responses to aggression are based on the fight or flight response; when someone witnesses violent actions, their sympathetic nervous system is activated, raising heart rate and blood pressure ready to respond to the threat. However, the more often people are exposed to aggression, the less sensitively their nervous system reacts to it, meaning the more they play violent computer games, or watch violent media, the less of a physiological arousal they show. This in turn suggests that people, particularly children, who have large exposure to violent media show less emotion in response to aggression in real life.

Question 61

What are the positive evaluation points of desensitisation?

Answer 61

Krahé et al (2007): Found that participants who reported regularly viewed violent media (including violent films and computer games) showed lower levels of arousal (e.g. sweating) when shown violent film clips than non-regular viewers. Lower arousal was correlated with unprovoked aggression in a ‘noise blast’ task. This supports the view that regular exposure to media aggression does serve to ‘desensitise’ the viewer, but also that this desensitisation is linked to higher levels of unprovoked aggression.

Question 62

What are the negative evaluation points of desensitisation?

Answer 62

• Positive and negative real-life consequences:
  Positive side, for army troops, they can become desensitised to the horrors of combat and therefore become a more effective soldier. One practical application may therefore be to use violent media such as computer games to desensitise soldiers as part of their conflict training.

Negative side though, Bushman et al (2009) suggest that exposure to violent media and the resulting desensitisation can reduce helping behaviour which might otherwise be offered. They become ‘comfortably numb’ to the pain and suffering of others and are consequently less helpful. This suggests awareness of the role desensitisation in people’s behaviour is important in a range of situations.

Question 63

What is disinhibition in aggression?

Answer 63

The normal belief is that aggression is harmful and unacceptable in a society; children are taught that aggressive behaviour will receive punishments (i.e. formal or informal sanctions) directly through operant conditioning or indirectly through social learning theory. If children continue to interact with violent media, especially if they perceive that the aggression was rewarded or not punished, then their usual moral restraints become looser; they minimise the effects of violence and justify its use meaning they may act aggressively themselves in future.

Question 64

What are the positive evaluation points of disinhibition?

Answer 64

Berkowitz et al (1973):
Found that, participants that watched a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more (fake) electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate.
This suggests that media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour when it is presented as vengeance, possibly because vengeance is seen as a strong justification for violence and therefore more socially acceptable.
However, the chances of disinhibition occurring may depend on other factors. Heath et al (1989) found that children growing up in households with strong norms against violence are unlikely to experience sufficient disinhibition for them to exhibit aggressive behaviour, whereas the disinhibition effect is stronger in families where children experience physical punishment from their parents and where they identify with violent heroes.
This suggests there may be practical applications of this research in encouraging parents to prevent their children from feeling the effects of disinhibition by establishing clear household norms and expectations around violence.

Question 65

What is cognitive priming in aggression?

Answer 65

According to Huesmann (1998), our life experiences help to write our schema or ‘script’ about violent situations which is stored in our memory ready to ‘play out’ when we encounter such situations in the future. For people who have had large amounts of exposure to violent media, including violent computer games, music and other media, they show more of a readiness to act aggressively. They are primed for aggression which means their schema may be ‘triggered’ by cues that they perceived to be more aggressive than others.

Question 66

What are the positive evaluation points of cognitive priming?

Answer 66

Bushman (1998).
Found that, when undergraduates watched a 15 minute segment of a violent film, they had faster
reaction times to aggressive words than those who had watched a non-violent film. This suggests that exposure to violent media does increase the ‘accessibility of violent thoughts and ideas, as predicted by the theory.

Furthermore, Anderson and Dill (2000) found that participants who played violent computer games had more cognitively accessible aggressive thoughts than did those who played non-violent computer games.
They concluded that a single incident of violent game play was enough to prime aggressive thoughts.

Question 67

What are the negative evaluation points of cognitive priming?

Answer 67

-Blaming aggression on the influence of the media may ignore the role played by biological factors.
For example, it is possible that aggressive behaviour may be, at least in part, genetic. Brunner (1993)
discovered a defective ‘MAOA gene’ in a Dutch family with a history of male violence.
Furthermore, testosterone has been shown play an important role in determining some aggressive behaviour.
This suggests media influence explanations of aggression may be limited in the amount of aggressive behaviours they can successfully explain on their own and other approaches may be needed to explain all cases of aggression.