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fires & explosions > Lecture 8 > Flashcards

Lecture 8 Flashcards

1
Q

The Birmingham Pub Bombings 1974 timeline

A

Timeline:
20:11 🡪 Code worded warning sent to Birmingham Post newspaper
20:17 🡪 Detonation in Mulberry Bush
20:27 🡪 Detonation in Tavern in the Town
21:15 🡪 Third bomb discovered

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2
Q

The Birmingham Pub Bombings 1974 fatalities

A

During the PIRA campaign in 1974 two bombs were detonated in Birmingham city centre
- Mulberry Bush 🡪 10 fatalities
- The Tavern in the Town 🡪 11 fatalities
- Third unexploded bomb in Barclays bank
- IRA would send a coded message to a major outlet ahead of time to give people a warning to evacuate the area to reduce harm to people
- In this case there wasn’t time for people to evacuate

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3
Q

What is a soft target?

A

Non military target, targeting normal everyday people

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4
Q

Facts of the Birmingham Pub Bombings 1974

A
  • The first major attack on a ‘soft target’ in UK mainland
  • This led to an explosion of anti-Irish xenophobic sentiment
    (Ostracism, arson attacks, airport staff refusing to process Ireland-bound flights)
  • Wave of revenge attacks by loyalist terrorist groups in NI (mostly random shootings)
  • IRA initially denied responsibility
  • Immediate demand for the arrest of the perpetrators
  • Home Secretary introduced the first Prevention of Terrorism Act
    (Seven days detention and deportation to Ireland (N. or Rep.) for suspected terrorists)
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5
Q

Arrests of the Birmingham Pub Bombings 1974

A

Immediate arrests and non-forensic evidence
- Six men detained after taking a train from Birmingham to Heysham (Lancashire coast) about to board a ship to Northern Ireland
- The men were friends of James McDade (IRA bomber who had died in an explosion on 14th November)
- They agreed to undergo forensic testing to ‘rule them out’ of the bombing

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6
Q

What is frangex?

A
  • Mixed explosive
  • Type of gelignite found in quarries in Republic of Ireland
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7
Q

What were the Frangex bombs composed of in the Birmingham incident?

A
  • 20-50% colloidon cotton (nitrocellulose dissolved in alcohol/ether) mixed with nitroglycerin
  • 30-40% saltpetre (KNO3)
  • < 15% wood pulp stabilizer (same role as diatomaceous earth)
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8
Q

How was the composition/construction of the bombs determined in the Birmingham Pub Bombings 1974?

A
  • The unexploded ‘Barclays bomb’ was key in determining the composition/construction
  • They are easily identified without taggants
  • Each bomb was approximately 15 kg which caused a huge amount of damage
  • As they found the bomb they knew they were looking for the presence of nitroglycerin on the suspects
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9
Q

What is colloidon cotton?

A
  • Nitrocellulose dissolved in alcohol/ether mixed with nitroglycerin
  • Nitrocellulose is easier to set off and nitroglycerine is more powerful explosive
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10
Q

What is the purpose of wood pulp stabilizer in frangex?

A

Wood acts as internal sacrificial barrier - the same as the diatomaceous earth in dynamite

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11
Q

What modern analytical technique could be used to detect the presence of nitroglycerin?

A
  • GC-TEA as it looks specifically for nitro-containing compounds
  • It is very sensitive so it can look for trace amounts
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12
Q

What can HPLC be used for?

A

It can be used to separate the components

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13
Q

How does the Griess test?

A
  • This is a specific chemical test to look for NO2 ions which are generated from explosive materials that contain nitro groups
  • The Griess reagent contains two components: sulfonamide + sulfuric acid + something else
  • Sulfonamide reacts in the presence of some acid (usually sulfuric acid) and that reacts with the nitride ions. Specifically, to create the N2+. These subsequently react with other reagents and form a compound which gives a clear pink colour.
  • Gives us a clear colour change which can be performed on site
  • This method was used heavily, particularly for nitroglycerine
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14
Q

What test did the forensic analysts use in the Birmingham bombing?

A

The Griess test

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15
Q

What is the Griess test is usually paired with?

A

The Griess test was often paired with thin layer chromatography test for nitroglycerin (very low tech)

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16
Q

Whats the problem with TLC?

A
  • TLC analysis is very imprecise and does not give reliable quantitative results
  • I can only provide extra information
  • It involves comparing the spots to see if they match
17
Q

What were the conclusions of the court for the Birmingham 6?

A
  • The ‘Birmingham Six’ were convicted based on evidence presented by Dr Frank Skuse from the North West Forensic Laboratory 🡪 they were jailed for life
  • He claimed there was a 99% chance that two of the men had nitroglycerin residue on their hands
    Skuse claimed he used such a low concentration solution that would only test positive if the appellants’ hands had been “dripping with nitroglycerine”
  • The control experiment carried out was without NaOH (to exclude ‘other’ nitrite sources)
18
Q

What are the issues with the conclusions relating to the Birmingham six?

A
  • There was no quantitative way of determining that number
  • The controlled test for the Griess test is to repeat it without NaOH so you wouldn’t get the positive colour change from the background or interfere with things
  • Skuse claimed that his NaOH solution was so weak the bombers would have had to have 5 grams of nitroglycerin on their hands to test positive. This is implausible considering how shock-sensitive nitroglycerine is.
19
Q

What are the criticisms of Dr Skuse’s evidence?

A
  • The TLC result was negative for nitroglycerine
  • If their hands were dropping the results should have been positive
  • GC-MS was eventually used by another analyst and there was a negative result
  • The Dr didn’t use the GC-MS even though he could have
  • The defence forensic expert (Dr Black) raised their concerns
  • Judge told the jury to focus on the expertise of Skuse and ignore Dr Black
20
Q

What potentially caused the positive result of the Birmingham six?

A
  • Nitrocellulose (gun cotton) is present in playing cards and reacts similarly with NaOH
  • The Birmingham six were playing cards on the train before being arrested
  • This possible explanation was publicised by a TV program on Granada (now ITV) in 1985 and Skuse retired three days later.
21
Q

What improvements have occurred since 1974?

A
  • The sensitivity and specificity of the test
  • Clean rooms 🡪 HEPA filters and testing conditions for trace analysis
  • Better recovery of evidence 🡪 less chance contamination
  • Additional independent testing
  • Multiple tests (even for GC we need three columns)
  • Test results from different labs have to match to present results confidently
  • Less “argument from authority” with regard to expert witnesses
  • A more standardised approach to analytical evidence presentation in court
  • A greater body of case law related to explosives
22
Q

What appeals were carried out for the Birmingham six?

A
  • There were multiple appeals against the conviction of the Birmingham Six
  • Initially referred for appeal in 1988 which was rejected
  • Successful appeal in 1991 where the relative value of GC-MS ‘gold standard’ testing versus a Griess test (preliminary screening only) was acknowledged
  • Several non-forensic issues (e.g. confessions, police brutality) also accounted for
  • Each of the Birmingham six was awarded around £1,000,000 compensation
23
Q

What happened to the real Birmingham pub bombers?

A
  • Nobody was charged after the exoneration of the Birmingham Six due to the general amnesty under the Good Friday agreement (1998)
  • Tacit agreement on both sides to not reopen the case
  • Speculation that Michael murry was the actual mastermind
24
Q

What were the reverberations from the Birmingham six?

A
  • St. Patrick’s Day celebrations only resumed in Birmingham in 1983
  • Michael Murray returned to Ireland campaigned against the peace process and IRA arms decommissioning and died in 1999
  • The Birmingham Six founded the Miscarriages of Justice Organisation
  • An unnamed 65 year old man was arrested on 18 November 2020 in connection with the bombings under the Terrorism Act 2000 but released after questioning

fires & explosions (18 decks)

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