Ch. 16 - Health & Stress Flashcards
Stress can have positive effects on our functioning and enhance our ability to thrive.
a
True
b
False
a
True
Stress is adaptive and helped your ancestors survive and thrive. Prolonged stress, on the other hand, is harmful.
(Whereas good stress is beneficial for us, motivating us to work to achieve our goals and even enhancing our functioning, bad stress can reduce motivation and impair functioning.)
Define the terms Eustress vs Distress
Even Hans Selye (Figure 16.2), one of the pioneers of stress research, emphasized the upside of stress in our lives (Selye, 1980). He coined the term eustress to represent reactions to good stress and contrasted it with the word distress, which represents reactions to bad stress.
Eustress usually occurs in the context of experiences such as getting married, having or adopting a child, getting a promotion at work, or being confronted with manageable challenges in everyday life
Yerkes-Dodson law?
outlines an inverted U-shaped curve for the relationship between stress and performance (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908).
***This law specifies that too little or too much stress impairs performance.
Maximal Adaptability Model?
One updated model of stress and performance is the Maximal Adaptability Model, which emphasizes that humans and other organisms are actually highly adaptive to stressors and can maintain high levels of performance even when experiencing underload or overload in terms of the demands of the environment.
Example: Although the COVID-19 pandemic led to widespread exposure to major psychological stressors, people showed remarkable resilience, at least during the first year
Define Stressors
Stressors are external circumstances and stimuli that are perceived as having the potential to disturb an individual’s balanced state.
Stressors can range from mild to severe.
Define Stress responses
Stress responses are internal integrated psychological and biological responses to stressors that work to restore a balanced state.
So, Stressor is the thing causing the stress, and Stress response is how we respond to that stress.
. Acute stressors vs Chronic stressors vs traumatic stressors
Acute stressors are short-term external circumstances or stimuli, lasting minutes to hours, with the potential to disturb an individual’s balanced state. Some examples are giving a 15-minute speech in public, or taking an important exam.
Chronic stressors are enduring external circumstances or stimuli, lasting weeks to years, with the potential to disturb an individual’s balanced state. Living in poverty, caring for an elderly relative, experiencing racism and discrimination in daily life.
Traumatic stressors are the most severe stressors, those involving a threat to your own or another’s life or physical integrity.
Stressors produce what type of changes in us?
a
Cognitive
b
Emotional
c
Physiological
d
All of the above
d
All of the above
Toward the beginning of the section on stressors and stress response, we discussed how stress responses are internal and can involve negative thoughts or cognition, negative emotions such as fear and anxiety, and physiological changes such as increased blood pressure and sweaty palms.
What is the Amygdala?
The amygdala is a small, almond-shaped cluster of nuclei located deep within the temporal lobes of the brain, part of the limbic system.
The amygdala is sometimes called the “neural watchdog,” because it responds to potential stressors rapidly and sometimes even before conscious awareness.
The amygdala doesn’t act alone, but instead works in a coordinated way with other brain areas that can either increase or decrease the amygdala’s response.
What is the hippocampus?
The hippocampus is located within the medial temporal lobe, roles in the processing of information from short-term memory to long-term memory and in spatial memory that enables navigation.
–>When we are in a stressful situation, it helps us to form a new memory of the stressful situation we’re in, as well as seach for existing memories on how to protect or save the body from the stressor or danger.
This is what Patient HM (Henry Molaison) had removed.
What is the Prefrontal cortex?
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is a region at the front of the brain, located in the frontal lobes, directly behind the forehead.
One of the last parts of brain to mature, and involved in decision making.
–>It may see something as a threat, and it will send it to the amygdala. Also, if the amygdala is overreacting, or makes a mistake, the prefrontal cortex will step in and tell it to calm down.
–>monitors hippocampus as well.
Which of the following statements is true concerning the brain regions that are involved in response to stress?
a
While the hippocampus is the region of the brain that responds rapidly to stress, the prefrontal cortex evaluates the stressor and then determines what action to take.
b
While the amygdala is the region of the brain that responds rapidly to stress, the hippocampus evaluates the stressor and then determines what action to take.
c
While the amygdala is the region of the brain that responds rapidly to stress, the prefrontal cortex evaluates the stressor and then determines what action to take.
d
While the prefrontal cortex is the region of the brain that responds rapidly to stress, the amygdala evaluates the stressor and then determines what action to take.
c
While the amygdala is the region of the brain that responds rapidly to stress, the prefrontal cortex evaluates the stressor and then determines what action to take.
According to the Neurobiological Responses to Stressors section, stressors first activate the amygdala, the hippocampus allows us to compare new memories of the current stressors to old memories of similar stressors, and the prefrontal cortex can evaluate the higher-level stimuli related to the stressors to mitigate or intensify the amygdala’s response.
{amygdala is called the “neural watchdog” because of its fast response to stimuli.}
The two branches of the autonomic nervous system?
- The Sympathetic Nervous System.
- The Parasympathetic NS.
The parasympathetic nervous system can ______ the fight-or-flight response and allow for the restoration of ____________.
The parasympathetic nervous system can dampen the fight-or-flight response and allow for the restoration of homeostasis.
Activation of the sympathetic nervous system promotes the release of stress hormones called __________ from the adrenal glands, which are located at the top of each of the kidneys.
Catecholamines.
These catecholamines include epinephrine and norepinephrine, which play a crucial role in preparing the body for the fight-or-flight response
Stressors can also activate the ___ axis, which creates a cascade of activities that ultimately promote the release of the stress hormone cortisol from the adrenal glands. First, the _____________ sends signals to the __________________ (which is central to both ANS and HPA responses to stressors) to release __________________________________________ (CRH). Second, CRH signals a gland located close to the hypothalamus called the __________________ to release ___________________________ (ACTH). Finally, ACTH travels in the bloodstream to the _________________, where it promotes the release of _________.
Stressors can also activate the HPA axis, which creates a cascade of activities that ultimately promote the release of the stress hormone cortisol from the adrenal glands. First, the amygdala sends signals to the hypothalamus (which is central to both ANS and HPA responses to stressors) to release corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). Second, CRH signals a gland located close to the hypothalamus called the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Finally, ACTH travels in the bloodstream to the adrenal glands, where it promotes the release of cortisol.
The fight-or-flight response involves an outpouring of which of the following into the bloodstream?
a
Estrogen and progesterone
b
Acetylcholine and endorphins
c
Lymphocytes and glutamate
d
Epinephrine and cortisol
d
Epinephrine and cortisol
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are stress hormones released by the adrenal glands in the kidneys, which is part of the sympathetic nervous system. Cortisol is another stress hormone released by the adrenal glands as part of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis.
–>Is SAM axis the one triggered by sympathetic nervous system?
What is the difference in the way cortisol levels are throughout the day in a person experiencing chronic stress versus a person who isn’t?
In humans, cortisol typically increases rapidly after awakening and then declines throughout the day until evening and bedtime. People experiencing chronic stressors tend to show a flattening of this response, such that there are lower levels of decline throughout the day.
What does cortisol do?
Cortisol, known as the “stress hormone,” plays a role in various body functions, including the regulation of metabolism, immune response, and stress response. It follows a diurnal pattern, meaning its levels vary throughout the day.
Freeze response?
This response often occurs in prey animals when they are completely overcome by a predator. Instead of continuing efforts to fight or flee, these animals become immobile and outwardly unresponsive. Accumulating evidence suggests that humans also engage in freeze responses to stressors, particularly to stressors that are traumatic and uncontrollable (Schmidt et al., 2008).
Define Reciprocal Inhibition in the context of the two branches of the autonomic nervous system.
The two branches of the autonomic nervous system are the Parasympathetic nervous system, and the Sympathetic nervous system.
Reciprocal inhibition just refers to the fact that they’re basically complementary to each other. So “Rest & digest” functions vs “fight or flight” functions.
Within the HPA axis, there are ________ feedback loops that serve as regulators.
Within the HPA axis, there are negative feedback loops that serve as regulators.
–>Negative feedback loops are when we have a set optimal condition for the body’s homeostasis (ex: temperature), and when we deviate from that, negative feedback loops are used to OPPOSE the change and bring the animal back to a set point.
{In this case, we want to return to normal cortisol levels).
->And positive feed back is when we want to accentuate the change (ex: heaving gets worse until you throw up).
Activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) leads to the release of _______________ , while activation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis leads to the release of
_________.
Activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) leads to the release of _catecholamines _ (Epinephrine and Norepinephrine), while activation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis leads to the release of
Cortisol.
(Epinephrine and norepinephrine are catecholamines, which are released by the adrenal glands to activate the autonomic nervous system, and cortisol is the most popular biological marker of the stress response released by the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis.)
True or False:
Research has revealed that even everyday acute stressors can activate the inflammatory response of the immune system.
True.
Why is the inflammatory response triggered by stressors?
Because in our ancestral past, stressors were more likely to involve physical attacks that were associated with injuries from fighting and efforts to flee. In response to acute psychological stressors, the body increases levels of proteins that regulate inflammation. This inflammatory response helps the body deal with the high likelihood of injury and infection (through any wounds) that may occur as you flee a saber-toothed tiger.
Everyday acute stressors can activate which of the following processes in our immune system to allow the body to cope with the increased risk for infection that accompanies some stressors?
a
Dopamine release
b
Antibody release
c
Inflammatory response
d
Endorphin reduction
c
Inflammatory response
The inflammatory response is an immune system response that allows for killing of any foreign biological invaders such as viruses and bacteria as well as healing of bodily tissue. Acute stressors trigger the activation of an inflammatory response to cope with the risk of infection or injury that accompanies some stressors.
Which of the following is the best example of a person’s use of primary appraisal in reacting to a new job?
a
Deciding whether one’s skills are sufficient to perform the job.
b
Assessing how difficult the new job is based on the duties involved.
c
Deciding whether the job enhances one’s self-efficacy.
b
Assessing how difficult the new job is based on the duties involved.
The duties of a job can inform one’s perception of its characteristics and how difficult the job is.
Primary appraisals vs Secondary appraisals?
Primary appraisals are based on your perceptions of the stressor’s characteristics and how much demand it represents, as well as its relevance for you. For example, your perception of the difficulty level of an upcoming examination and its weighting for your final GPA is part of your primary appraisal.
Secondary appraisals are based on your perceptions of the resources available for coping with a specific stressor. Resources can include internal factors, such as your personality or perceived abilities, or external factors, such as social support or financial resources, that will help meet the demands of the situation. For example, your perception of how much time you have to study and how much you already know for a specific examination is your secondary appraisal.
How does Challenge and Threat Theory distinguish between challenges and threats?
Challenges are defined as situations in which resources exceed the demands of the situation.
Stressors involving the potential for positive outcomes and personal gain are more likely to be perceived as challenges.
Threats are defined as situations in which demands exceed the resources available for coping.
Stressors involving danger, uncertainty, uncontrollability, novelty, and high levels of effort all have higher “demands” and are more likely to be perceived as threats.
True or False:
If you perceive that a specific set of circumstances exceeds your ability to cope or adapt, then that is a threat for you, even if it would not be considered a threat for someone else.
True.
Your perception of an event or situation (i.e., potential stressor) influences your body’s response to the potential stressor. Thus, you can reduce the negative effects of stress on your health by changing how you perceive an event or situation.
a
True
b
False
a
True
Research studies have demonstrated that your perception of an event influences how your body responds and health outcomes.
Richard Lazarus and colleagues view stress as primarily a consequence of which of the following?
a
Environmental events that impact the individual
b
A disruption in homeostasis
c
Being alive
d
How a person appraises environmental events and the person’s coping resources
d
How a person appraises environmental events and the person’s coping resources
Explanation:
A person evaluates the magnitude of external stressors and their coping mechanisms for those stressors. The result of this appraisal is the stress response.
define appraisal?
In the context of psychology, particularly within the framework of stress and coping theories developed by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman, “appraisal” refers to the process by which an individual evaluates and interprets the significance of a specific event or situation. This evaluation determines whether and to what extent the event is perceived as a threat, challenge, or harm, and influences the emotional and physiological responses that follow.
Which of the following could be used as the dependent variable in a study that measures physiological responses to stressors?
a
Scores on the Perceived Stress Scale
b
Heart rate
c
Different types of stressors
d
Both A and C
b
Heart rate
Heart rate is a dependent variable. Perceived stress and the quantity of stressors experienced are potential independent variables in a study of physiological stress responses.
True or False?
One difference between using lab animals to study stressors vs humans is that humans can activate a stressor by merely THINKING about that stressor.
True!
(animals live much more in the moment. they aren’t triggered by just thinking about a stressor, though they can be triggered by a seemingly non-threatening event if it reminds them of something that has traumatized them)
From the textbook, about how humans trigger a stressor by thinking about it:
You are lying in bed trying to sleep, and your mind wanders to think about a conversation you had at a party last week. You remember talking to Jesse, your crush. You couldn’t hear him properly, but he was asking you about potential options for a date. You shout “I’d love to go to see that movie with you” at the exact moment that the music stops. He blushes bright red and clarifies that he was asking whether your best friend would be interested in going to the movies with him. Imagine lying there in the dark, days after the party. You would likely experience all the symptoms of the stress response again—from the racing heart rate to the fear and anxiety—by simply thinking about the past experience. Mentally replaying the mortifying conversation between you and Jesse causes your body to mount a stress response that prepares you to fight or flee from a giant predatory animal. And what you really want to do is go to sleep!
Content Validity meaning?
Content validity refers to the extent to which a test or measurement tool is representative of all aspects of the construct it is intended to measure.
To better understand the association of real-world stressor exposure with mental and physical health outcomes in humans, scientists often use which of the following methods?
a
Laboratory studies
b
Experimental designs
c
Correlational studies
d
Intervention studies
c
Correlational studies
Experimental designs with random assignment of participants to treatment and control groups would be unethical, but researchers can look at the relationship between the type and amount of stressor and negative outcomes in correlational research.
Which of the following best characterizes content validity?
a
When an instrument or construct measures or captures what it is intended to measure
b
Having a large sample size
c
Obtaining informed consent
d
None of the above
a
When an instrument or construct measures or captures what it is intended to measure.
When we are measuring stress, we want an assessment that is sensitive to all defined changes in stress. Assume that we included in our operational definition of stress that stressors can include natural disasters and major life events like the death of a loved one or losing a job. Our assessment should change with fluctuations in cortisol, norepinephrine, or blood pressure when our participants experience any of those types of stressors. We wouldn’t want that assessment to be sensitive to only one kind of stressor such as stress responses to natural disasters. Measures that have good content validity capture all relevant aspects of the psychological construct included in the operational definition for a study.
Trier Social Stress Test meaning?
The Trier Social Stress Test is one of the most widely used paradigms in experimental stress research in humans.
In this paradigm, participants are exposed to the acute stressor of delivering a speech and performing challenging mental arithmetic in front of an audience.
—>An example of the speech task is that you are asked to give a speech presenting yourself as the ideal applicant for a job vacancy. An example of the mental arithmetic task is that you serially subtract 13 or 17 from a large number such as 3,981 (Try this and imagine doing it in front of an audience. It looks easy, but it’s not!). The task includes an anticipation period of 10 minutes during which participants prepare for their upcoming speech and a test period of 10 minutes during which they perform the speech for five minutes and mental arithmetic for five minutes. An important aspect of this stressor task is that the evaluative audience maintains neutral expressions throughout the task, and they give you only neutral feedback. For most people, this increases the demands of the task quite considerably, and the paradigm is remarkably successful at eliciting biological stress responses in humans.
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)?
The PSS aims to examine the extent to which people perceive their lives as unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overloaded.
WHat are the advanatages of questionnaire measures of perceived stress?
What are the disadvantages?
ADVANTAGES:
1. They can directly focus on perceptions of stressors, demands, and resources, thereby giving us an index of perceived stress for an individual.
- Second, a well-designed questionnaire measure of perceived stress can be both reliable and valid and easily completed by most people.
- Third, paper-and-pencil or electronic measures can be added to large-scale studies at a relatively low cost, allowing for large sample sizes.
DISADVANTAGES:
1.it is challenging to design a reliable and valid questionnaire that captures all aspects of perceived stress.
2.people may misinterpret items or use their own prior history as an anchor for their responses, such that they may report relatively less stress if they have experienced high levels of stress in the past or relatively high levels of stress if they have experienced less stress in the past.
3.as with questionnaire measures of stressor exposure, measures of perceived stress are likely to conflate stressor exposures and outcomes. For example, if someone is experiencing high levels of financial strain that already impact their mental health, then the measure of perceived stress may reflect both the stressor exposure and its impact and lead to exaggerated interpretations of any causal relationship between perceived stress and mental health outcomes.
Which of the following is one of the most widely used self-report measures of stress used in psychology?
a
Trier Social Stress Test
b
Primary Appraisal
c
Perceived Stress Scale
d
Diathesis-Stress Scale
c
Perceived Stress Scale
The Perceived Stress Scale is a self-report questionnaire that assesses stress on the perception of events in their life (like the learned helplessness phenomenon we talked about in Chapter 7), and the Trier Social Stress Test is the experiment in which people give speeches and solve mathematics problems in front of an audience.
diathesis-stress model?
Some people are highly resilient in the face of stressors, while others are more vulnerable to stressor-related ill health. One model for this phenomenon is called the diathesis-stress model.
