Week 3- Policy Development Models

Question 1

Define a rational comprehensive model

Answer 1

Gives rise to policy cycle models and linear multi-step models of decision making and problem solving

Question 2

Define a network participatory model

Answer 2

Focuses on actors and institutions, not processes, emphasis on participatory democracy and horizontal networks of influence

Question 3

Describe policy cycle and stagist models

Answer 3

• Form rational comprehensive stream, set out key phases in developing policy processes
• Both descriptive and prescriptive

Question 4

Define descriptive

Answer 4

Provides heuristic for breaking down chaos of policy development into manageable steps to study

Question 5

Define prescriptive

Answer 5

Justified on grounds govt should aim for more orderly, predictable policy making to produce better results

Question 5

Outline the 8 step policy model- Althus, Bridgman and David Cycle Model

Answer 5

1. Identifying issues- recognition of problem needing attention, joins govt’s agenda
2. Policy analysis- assembling of info to frame issue and understand problem
3. Policy instruments- determining appropriate tools and approaches to design a policy response
4. Consultation- structured process to seek and respond to views about a policy issue from relevant interest groups, individuals or general community
5. Coordination- ensuring policy, politics and admin work together
6. Decision- confirmation of policy by govt, usually via a formal resolution of cabinet
7. Implement- giving expression to the decision through legislation or a program
8. Evaluation- a process to systematically examine the effects of a policy program

Question 6

Outline the 6 step Australian cycle (version of Howlett and Ramesh)

Answer 6

1. Agenda setting
2. Policy formulation
3. Decision making
4. Implementation
5. Evaluation

Question 7

Outline the 8 step Bardach cycle

Answer 7

1. Define problem
2. Assemble evidence
3. Construct alternatives
4. Select criteria
5. Project outcomes
6. Confront outcomes
7. Decide
8. Tell your story

Question 8

Outline criticisms for cycle based policy models

Answer 8

• Cycle based, step wise policy models often scorned for being overly rational, orderly, linear and therefore unrealistic
• Critics argue models should begin with policy world as it is, not as it should be (reality based)
• Purveyors of the cycle models are nobody can make much progress when they begin with conceptual pandemonium
• Authors of cycle models acknowledge limitations and discourage readers from turning these flexible learning aids into strict algorithms for practical application

Question 9

Outline how Bardach views the policy cycle

Answer 9

• Treats problem solving as trial and error, requiring iteration and repetition
• Describes policy analysis as a social and political activity, often done in teams with other professionals and interested parties
• Present multiple policy options
• Self justifying policy analysis is avoided by setting specific criteria relating to values and intended impacts- selection of criteria and construction of multiple options

Question 10

Outline what is involved in projecting outcomes

Answer 10

• Most difficult to complete
• Prompts analysts to think about how different policy options are likely to achieve specific results
• Reminds them they are designing for the future, not the present

Question 11

Outline what is involved in deciding and telling your story

Answer 11

Invites policy professionals to put themselves in the shoes of their clients, calling for effective policy communication

Question 12

Outline the differences between the Australian Policy Cycle and Bardach’s

Answer 12

• Australian model in original form developed as departmental policy handbook to regularise policy processes
• Bardach’s model designed to develop generic problem solving skills relevant to all settings (not just govt)
• Australian model institutionally based (highly partisan, time-pressured, quasi-Westminster context of public sector policy making)
• Bardach presumes plurality of contexts, multiple sites for multiple clients, many not in public centre. Focuses on fundamental features that all policy analysis tasks have
• Both include variations of basic steps of applied problem solving

Question 13

What is the focus of network participatory approaches?

Answer 13

• Focus on the actors in a policy system
• Policy networks facilitate more and less formal interactions among policy analysts, decision makers, citizens and other stakeholder groups, and provide a means of forging consensus on policy settings

Question 14

Outline the roles of various stakeholders in the Howlett and Ramesh approach

Answer 14

• Interest network of actors intimately involved in policy process and resulting policies and programs
• Discourse communities are more loosely involved, but still maintain an interest in policy outputs and outcomes, usually more motivated by subject interest

Question 15

What is Sabatier’s Advocacy Coalition Framework?

Answer 15

• A model of the policy process dominated by interest groups
• Sources of changes to policy settings include variability in socioeconomic conditions and technology, plus shifting govt coalitions

Question 16

Compare cycle and network approaches

Answer 16

• Cycle largely focuses on inside govt policy and its processes, network offers a wider systems view
• Both have positive and normative aspects, but network is largely used for positive analysis, to describe how and why particular policies are produced within their larger contexts. Cycle is a more normative analysis for practical purposes of guiding real policy choices and designs
• Rational linear approaches attach a high value to assembling information and evidence in problem solving, network participatory call for more discursive, argumentative approach- valuing communication between actors, seeking common understandings of policy problems more than objective evidence

Question 17

Outline criticisms of rationalist approach

Answer 17

• It gives an unduly large role to experts and professionals in policy development
• Treats political actors as inconvenient barriers to efficient, effective policy design

Question 18

Outline criticisms of network participatory approach

Answer 18

• Concern that elevating networks as the main driver of policy making relegates governments to an overly passive role of implementing policy stances developed outside formal govt system
• Suggestion groups pressure to conform will produce uncritical thinking in policy networks and in society as a whole

Question 19

Outline Herbert Simon’s approach

Answer 19

• Sought accomodation between the assumptions of economic rationality about perfect information and optimising behaviour and the realities of ‘bounded rationality’
• Includes limits on time, access to information, capacity to process information and subterranean currents of emotion and desire
• Influenced contributions to public policy, public administration and organisational behaviour

Question 20

Outline Charles Lindblom’s approach

Answer 20

• Studied phenomena of political negotiation and judgement, reminding policy analysts that good policy depends ultimately on good politics, but does not therefore dismiss the potential contributions of policy workers

Question 21

How can policy advice be used?

Answer 21

• If policy advice can be used to help policy workers overcome their cognitive impairments, it can play a role in salutary social change
• Impairments stem from rationality’s limits but also from the power of social convergence to entrench dysfunctional ideas and temptation for elites to embrace ideas that protect their own advantages
• Before policy processes can be understood and improved, rationality and participatory networks need to be understood

Question 22

Outline the ‘garbage can’ theory

Answer 22

• Cohen et al described decision opportunities as garbage cans in which three elements- problems, solutions and participants- slosh around and mix
• Portrays solutions and problems moving independently, not sequentially
• Linkages discerned by participants, leading to policy proposals

Question 23

Outline what ‘window of opportunity’ means

Answer 23

• Brings together techniques of applied problem solving (problem stream) with understanding of engagement with public concerns and attendant political risks (political stream) plus the work generated in policy networks of interest groups and researchers (policy stream)

Question 24

What does Parsons note about the contributions of Dror and Etzoni?

Answer 24

• Values drew on rational analysis, while acknowledging creative value of intuition
• Dror- descriptive and prescriptive to improve quality of decision making
• Etzoni- softens assumptions of rationality, promotes benefits of a long term strategic perspective on policy, with descriptive and prescriptive components

Question 25

Outline Baumgartner and Jones’ punctuated equilibrium view

Answer 25

• ‘Punctuated equilibrium’ as metaphor
• Policy remains relatively stable over long periods followed by sudden shifts
• Suggests new entry of participants and multiple interactions among groups and policy subsystems, result in strong pressures to change
• Role of state as an actor has been revived
• Policy analysis tools expanded including stakeholder analysis, public engagement, research contracting, systematic literature reviews, bargaining and negotiation

Question 26

Outline the anti-model model

Answer 26

• Core message- competition between images of policy work cannot be resolved by any single theory or model of the policy making system
• Policy making in practice involves multiple systems, each operating on own terms
• Chance often intervenes too
• Multiple forces e.g. internal coalition, strife, external stakeholders, the media or unforeseen events may propel govt into a panic cycle
• Panic driven policy making may trigger an unproductive crisis management response. These models describe reality

Question 27

Outline the panic loop

Answer 27

• Public anxiety about X
• Pressure on govt to act
• Knee-jerk policy change
• Hasty deployment of policy
• Weak or negative impact
• Any reliable, useable model needs to adapt to nearly constant changes. Should be reviewed regularly, reprogrammed, upgraded or replaced. Should feature built in adaptability

Question 28

Outline the crisis management loop

Answer 28

Evidence of policy failure

• Media and opposition field day
• Effort spent defending policy
• No time for analysis
• More missed opportunities for improvement