Week 1: What is Comparative Politics & What Do We Compare

Question 1

Define Comparative politics
(LaPalombara, 1974)

Answer 1

The study of political phenomena
that are predominantly WITHIN country relationships

Question 2

Define International politics
(Morgenthau, 1948)

Answer 2

The study of political phenomena
that are predominantly BETWEEN country relationships

Question 3

Define Comparative Politics based on Aristotle

Answer 3

Comparative politics is the study of political phenomena through
the “comparative method.”

Question 4

Comparative method

Answer 4

Comparing a small number of
cases in order to better understand their qualities, and to develop and investigate hypotheses, theories, and concepts.

Question 5

Methodology

Answer 5

The systematic analysis of the methods used in a given field of enquiry. It’s also used to describe the body of methods used in a discipline, or the means used to reach a particular set of conclusions.

Question 6

Causation

Answer 6

“X caused Y”

Counterfactual statement: if there had been no x, there would have been no y

Question 7

Typology

Answer 7

Useful tools for classifying cases on different dimensions and making predictions from that

E.g. Categories such as competitive oligarchy, democracy, electoral oligarchy, electoral authoritarianism, closed authoritarianism etc.

Question 8

Description

Answer 8

A descriptive argument describes some aspect of the world.

Descriptive arguments are about what is/was. For example: ‘Over the
course of the past two centuries there have been three major waves of democratization.’

any empirical proposition that attempts to answer a what, when, whom, out of what, or in what manner question is classified as descriptive

Question 9

What role does description play in social science research?

Answer 9

1. Prioritize among the wide range of facts in the world to highlight features salient to the question at
   hand
2. Organize the wide range of facts in the world into a coherent narrative (e.g. “three waves”, typologies, etc)

Question 10

Theory

Question 11

Unit of Analysis

Answer 11

The object of study in comparative politics

Question 12

Level of Analysis

Answer 12

The level of study in comparative politics, ranging from the political system level to the individual level

Question 13

Variable

Answer 13

A changeable feature, factor, quantity or element

Question 14

What are the three different approaches to political research?

Answer 14

1) Experimental method
2) Statistical method
3) Comparative method

Question 15

What is the experimental method?

Answer 15

This method uses experimental and control groups to isolate the effects of different stimuli

Question 16

What is the statistical method?

Answer 16

Uses empirically (verifiable by observation/experience rather than theory/logic) observed data to tease out relationships among variables.

Question 17

What does Landman argue regarding the methods to use for comparative study of politics?

Answer 17

It depends on:
1) combination of the research question asked
2) time & resources available
3) the method with which the researcher is most comfortable
4) epistemological preferences of the researcher (how they believe that understanding can be best achieved)

Question 18

What method is the most popular/common in the comparative study of politics?

Answer 18

Case study method with many subsidiary choices;
1) how many cases are appropriate
2) why selection of cases are appropriate
3) are the best approaches using qualitative, quantitative or historical methods?

Question 19

How many cases does the case study method use?

Answer 19

Single case

Question 20

What are the advantages of using a single case (in the case study method)?

Answer 20

1) Depth
2) Other researchers can use two or more single-country studies to explore broader similarities & differences
3) Single cases - fully compared with an ideal type or typology

Question 21

What does the qualitative method involve?

Answer 21

Comparing two to a dozen or more cases (small-N)

Question 22

What are the advantages of the qualitative method?

Answer 22

Using more than one single case whilst being manageable

Question 23

Which method is best for stat analysis?

Answer 23

Quantitative

Question 24

The quantitative method is known as?

Answer 24

Large-N (n for number of cases)

Question 25

Disadvantages of the quantitative method

Answer 25

1) Take more time + resources
2) Likely to be affected by variable quality + availability of data
3) Could be more broad in terms information than depth
4) Needs to be compared with a single case or small-N studies

Question 26

List three bullet points about the case study method

Answer 26

1. Widely used in politics + econ, biz, anthropology
2. A research method involving the detailed use of a particular object
3. Also the context which it exists within

Question 27

Difference between case and study?

Answer 27

Case: Investigation and analysis on a deeper level
Study: Account of an event that doesn’t venture beyond the event itself
Case study: Adds value by giving a detailed illustration of a wider theme of interest

Question 28

List the techniques used in case studies

Answer 28

1) Reading academic literature
2) Examining primary and secondary sources
3) Conducting interviews with participants and other observers
4) Experience

Question 29

List the 5 types of case studies

Answer 29

1. Representative
2. Prototypical
3. Exemplary
4. Deviant
5. Critical

Question 30

Which case study is the most commonly used?

Answer 30

Representative

Question 31

Representative case study

Answer 31

Typical of the category

Question 32

Example of representative case study

Answer 32

Researchers may be interested in
the formation of coalition governments in general, but choose to study in detail how governments form in their homeland.

The home country is the research site but the hope is that the results will contribute to broader understanding.

Question 33

A collection of representative case studies can go on to?

Answer 33

Provide the raw material for comparative generalisation by other scholars taking a wider approach.

Question 34

Which case study is not preferred?

Answer 34

Prototypical

Question 35

Prototypical

Answer 35

Expected to become typical or ‘representative’

Question 36

Example of a famous prototypical case study

Answer 36

Democracy in America, written by the French politician Alexis de Tocqueville as a product of his travels in the United States from 1831 to 1832.

He had been sent by the French government to study the American prison system, but the book he wrote became a broader analysis of democracy and representative government, using the US as a case.

De Tocqueville regarded the United States as a harbinger of
democracy and therefore a guide to Europe’s own future
(1835, ch. 1)

Question 37

Contemporary examples of prototypical case studies

Answer 37

Sophisticated use of the internet in US election campaigns.

Question 38

Aim of prototypical cases

Answer 38

To reveal how similar cases may evolve in the future

Question 39

What are exemplary cases?

Answer 39

Archetypes that are considered to have created the category of which they are taken as representative

Question 40

Example of exemplary case

Answer 40

The parliamentary system was born in Britain and thus, a study of the features of the BP will give us insights into the manner in which legislators & executives work in all those countries using this system

Question 41

What is a deviant case and what is its purpose?

Answer 41

1. To seek out the exceptional and the untypical, rather than the norm: the few countries which remain communist,
   or which are still governed by the military, or which
   seem to be immune from democratising trends
2. Used to tidy up our understanding of exceptions and anomalies

Question 42

Example of a deviant case study

Answer 42

Why does India contradict the thesis that democracy presupposes prosperity?

Why did tiny Switzerland adopt a federal architecture
when many federations are found in large countries?

Question 43

What is a critical case?

Answer 43

Enables a proposition to be tested in the circumstances
least favourable to its validity.

The logic is simple: if it
is true here, then it is true everywhere.

Question 44

Example of a critical case study

Answer 44

If we were to find that most Germans opposed further
European integration, we could anticipate that the same
would hold true in other EU countries such as Britain which have historically been more suspicious of the
European project.

Question 45

Pros of critical case study

Answer 45

highly efficient, providing exceptional returns on the
research investment; by studying just one country, we
can generalize to others.

Question 46

Cons of critical case study

Answer 46

Builds a potential for
generalisation into a single investigation but involves a
bet that the relevant proposition will be confirmed in the conditions least favourable to its validity

Question 47

Define hypothesis

Answer 47

Proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be confirmed or falsified through observation or
experimentation.

Question 48

Define dependent variable

Answer 48

The factor or element we wish to
explain

Question 49

Define independent variable

Answer 49

The factor or element believed to influence the dependent variable. There are often many such variables.

Question 50

Define qualitative method

Answer 50

A research method that typically uses a small number of cases to understand a phenomenon holistically and within its natural setting, with an emphasis on
values, opinions, behaviour, and context.

Question 51

What are the 6 features of qualitative approach?

Answer 51

A limited number of cases are studied in depth.
* It is descriptive rather than predictive.
* An effort is made to understand the interaction of
multiple variables.
* Meaning is allowed to emerge from the objects of
study.
* Observation is the main means of data collection.
* Phenomena are studied within their natural setting.

Question 52

Example of qualitative method (Jeremy Rifkin - 2004 study - The European Dream)

Answer 52

1. Compared and contrasted the priorities and values of Americans and Europeans
2. Began with the notion of the ‘American Dream’, an idea usually credited to the historian James Truslow Adams in his book The Epic of America (1931)
3. Although never
   clearly defined, it is usually taken to mean that Americans living the dream are being allowed to pursue their goals in life through hard work and free choice, regardless of race, gender, age, religion, or class

Question 53

Explain Rifkin’s disagreement with the idea of the American Dream.

Answer 53

1. Argued that it was
   centred more on personal material advancement than
   on concern with broader human welfare.
2. He contrasted it with the European Dream, which focused more on ‘quality of life over the accumulation of wealth’
3. Concluded that the EU had been developing a new social + political model better suited to the needs of the globalizing world of the new century
4. He reached these conclusions before 2007 financial crisis + eurozone crisis in 2009

Question 54

The selection of cases is…

Answer 54

Important

Question 55

Define the Most Similar System (MSS)

Answer 55

A research design based on using cases that are as similar as possible, in effect controlling for
the similarities and isolating the causes of differences.

Question 56

Underlying logic behind MSS design is?

Answer 56

The more similar the units being compared, the more possible it should be to isolate the factors
responsible for differences between them

Question 57

Example of MSS method

Answer 57

1. A study of attitudes towards membership of the European Union among its six founding states, or a selection
   of Western European members, or a selection of Eastern
   Europeans members.
2. Attitudes towards integration differ among countries within each group, even though
   the countries might appear to have much else in common, so the goal would be to tease out the differences
   that accounted for the variation in levels of support for
   the EU within an otherwise similar group.

Question 58

List 4 cons of MSS design

Answer 58

1. Issue of too many variables
2. Issue of too few countries
3. Much of the value of a qualitative comparison (using an MSS design) lies in the journey, rather than the destination
4. Usually no decisive way of testing among the many factors responsible for an observed difference

Question 59

Define Most Different System (MDS)

Answer 59

A research design based on using cases that are as different as possible, in effect controlling for the differences and isolating the causes of similarities.

Question 60

Underlying logic behind MDS

Answer 60

Test a relationship between two factors by discovering whether it can be observed in a range of countries with contrasting
histories, cultures, and so on.

If yes, our confidence that
the relationship is real, and not due to the dependence
of both factors on an unmeasured third variable, will
increase

Question 61

Example of MDS

Answer 61

1. Historical analysis by Theda Skocpol - 1979 - of revolutions in France, Russia, and China.
2. These 3 cases = very different political-economic + social systems
3. So, she set out to ask what they had in common that would produce a similar political outcome
4. Concluded that regimes, which were internationally weak + domestically ineffective became vulnerable to insurrection when well-organized agitators succeeded in exploiting peasant frustration with an old order to which the landed aristocracy offered only limited support

Question 62

Define quantitative method

Answer 62

A research method involving variables rather than cases, and attempting to explain political
phenomena using statistics.

Question 63

Example of quantitative method

Answer 63

The most basic form of quantitative research = counting populations.

For instance: how many federations are there, how many
states are democratic, and how many authoritarian
regimes from 1980 are democratic today?

Question 64

Define correlation

Answer 64

A relationship between two or more variables
or attributes

Question 65

What is a modest positive correlation (give an e.g)?

Answer 65

If this is being asked: whether population impacts the size of the legislature

MPC - the larger the population, the larger the assembly

Question 66

What happens if there’s a negative correlation?

Answer 66

The regression line would slope down rather than up: in that unlikely case, a larger population would be associated with a smaller legislature

Question 67

Define regression line

Answer 67

The line of best fit in a scatterplot, summarising the relationship between two variables.

Question 68

What does a regression line help us identify?

Answer 68

Outliers

Question 69

Define outliers

Answer 69

The observations furthest away from the value predicted by the regression line.

Question 70

Why can the interpretation of quantitative data be difficult? (spurious correlation)

Answer 70

1. A strong correlation between two variables can arise because both depend on a third factor
   - there is no cause and effect between two variables (in this case)
   - E.g. A correlation between proportional representation & multi-party systems might arise because both factors emerge in divided societies
   - This problem of a spurious correlation can be addressed by including all relevant variables
   in an analysis, but we may not know how many are
   relevant, and may not have data on all those we think
   might be relevant

Question 71

Why can the interpretation of quantitative data be difficult? (correlation DOES NOT EQUAL to causation)

Answer 71

1. Even if a relationship between two variables is genuine, the direction of causation = remains to be established

e.g suppose we find that liberal democracies have higher rates of
economic growth than authoritarian regimes

however; does the
correlation arises because democracy encourages economic growth, or because economic growth encourages democracy?

• a case can be made either way
• A statistical correlation by itself will not provide the answer, correlation is NOT EQUAL TO causation

Question 72

List the challenges of comparison

Answer 72

1. Too few cases, too many variables
2. Selection bias
3. Understanding
   meaning
4. Globalization

Question 73

Too few cases, too many variables

Answer 73

1. The number of variables exceeds the number of cases.
2. We will never be able
   to test all possible explanations of a political difference
   between states

Question 74

Solutions to “Too few cases, too many variables”

Answer 74

1. Increase the no. of cases in a study by turning to history and comparing cases over an an extended period.
2. Use most similar system designs to achieve a more focused study of a
   few cases, or a most different system design to reduce the number of variables
3. Resort to asking hypothetical ‘What if …?’ questions by using counterfactuals

Question 75

Define counterfactual

Answer 75

A thought experiment speculating on
possible outcomes if a particular factor had been absent from
a process, or an absent factor had been present.

e.g. What would our world be like if the 9/11 attacks didn’t happen?

Question 76

Define Selection bias

Answer 76

Arises when selected cases and variables are unrepresentative of the wider class from which they are
drawn.

• the units of analysis
  (such as states, cities, interest groups, or electoral systems) are chosen intentionally rather than randomly

Question 77

Why is selection bias a problem?

Answer 77

1. We might choose to study those countries which speak our language,or which we feel are safe to visit.
2. AS A RESULT: large and powerful states might be studied more intensively than small and less powerful ones, even though large
   states are untypical.
3. Countries in which it is difficult to conduct research receive insufficient
   attention
4. E.g Good (2010) suggests authoritarian regimes such as Russia are under-studied because of the political sensitivity of conducting
   research in such domains
5. The result of such selection
   biases is that published work is unrepresentative of all
   states

Question 78

List all the forms of selection bias (4)

Answer 78

1. Examining only positive cases, thus eliminating all variation in the phenomenon we seek to
   explain
2. Survivorship bias
3. Value bias
4. Confirmation bias

Question 79

Examining only positive cases, thus eliminating all variation in the phenomenon we seek to
explain (EXPLAIN THIS PT)

Answer 79

1. E.g We may find that revolutions
   are always preceded by war, or that all non-voters are
   cynical about politics.
2. But we have no contrast to explore and explain
3. We do not know how
   often war occurs without triggering a revolution, or whether the political cynicism we find among
   abstainers is equally prevalent among those who turn
   out on election day

Question 80

When does survivorship bias occur?

Answer 80

When non-survivors of a temporal process are excluded,
leading to biased results.

Question 81

Example of when survivorship bias occurs

Answer 81

Studying the few surviving
communist states or military governments as representative of the entire class of such regimes (past and
present) is an error because the few that have survived may differ systematically from those that have disappeared.

Question 82

Define value bias

Answer 82

Allowing assessments, the choice of facts, and conclusions to be impacted by the values of the researcher.

Question 83

When does value bias occur?

Answer 83

1. A particular problem in
   comparative studies
2. Other than the country
   or countries in which researchers have spent most or
   all of their lives, they will initially know little directly about the objects of their study

3.They face the danger of seeing others through the lenses of their
own experiences, values, and learning

4. They could be biased w/out realising through factors such as biased by politics, culture, race,
   gender, religion, age, economic situation, and a host
   of other factors.

Question 84

Define confirmation bias

Answer 84

The tendency to seek out or interpret
information that confirms pre-existing beliefs and attitudes,
and to ignore information that does not.

Question 85

When does confirmation bias occur?

Answer 85

1. When researchers have a view in mind before they undertake their
   research, and pay attention only to the facts and analyses that support that view, ignoring or downplaying
   any contrary evidence
2. Produces skewed results and conclusions

Question 86

How to prevent cultural imperialism?

Answer 86

Cultural imperialism - action in our home state is incorrectly projected
onto other societies.

Before we begin any cross-national comparison we should ensure that we understand the relevant
cultural codes of the states we are studying

Question 87

How does globalisation pose a challenge?

Answer 87

Poses a challenge to the traditional concept of state sovereignty by fostering interdependence among nations.

Question 88

What does interconnectedness of states result in?

Answer 88

Coming together of political and governmental structures, leading to a phenomenon known as homogenization.

Question 89

What is the KOF globalization index?

Answer 89

Maintained by the Swiss Economic Institute, quantifies the degree of global connectivity among countries, with smaller democracies often exhibiting higher levels of integration.

Question 90

What is Benjamin Barber’s perspective on globalization?

Answer 90

1. Globalization = a clash between globalism and tradition
2. E.g Jihad vs McWorld
3. “Jihad,” represents the resurgence of tribal identities and traditional values in the face of global homogenization
4. “McWorld” symbolizes the spread of commercial and cultural uniformity driven by corporate interests and technological advancements
5. “Jihad” embodies resistance to the erosion of local identities and community ties, advocating for autonomy and solidarity among individuals, families, and communities.
6. “McWorld” promises peace, prosperity, and unity on a global scale but at the expense of individual and cultural distinctiveness, fostering a standardized, consumer-driven society.
7. captures the complexities and tensions inherent in the globalization process - how it can simultaneously empower and marginalize different communities and traditions.

Question 91

McDonaldization

Answer 91

describes a trend where efficiency, predictability, and standardization dominate culture, politics, and expectations.

Question 92

What has caused the idea of statehood to diffuse the idea of statehood from its origins in Europe?

Answer 92

Significant historical transitions, such as industrialization and democratization

Question 93

What do scholars argue to do for comparative analysis?

Answer 93

To study the broader global system rather than treating states as isolated entities

Question 94

Example of a diffusion of international norms

Answer 94

1. Presidential and parliamentary systems
2. reflects global influence, as does the adoption of mechanisms like the ombudsman.

Question 95

What does the rise of international organisations say?

Answer 95

1. UN and European Union
2. Introduces an additional layer of governance, shaping the policies and interactions of member states.

Question 96

How does interdependence complicate statistical analysis?

Answer 96

Cautioning against the assumption of state independence and emphasizing the need to account for common external influences like globalization.

Question 97

What is the historical method?

Answer 97

1. Many political studies, especially in comparative politics, prioritize the present over historical analysis.
2. However, this separation is arbitrary since what is current today becomes history tomorrow.
3. Political science could benefit from leveraging history as a valuable resource for additional case
4. Historical events like genocide and revolution, as well as specific episodes, offer insights that can either support, challenge, or refine existing theories.
5. The historical method expands the database available to researchers.
6. allows for the utilization of the “most different system design” approach, enabling the examination of findings’ robustness across different time periods.

Question 98

What is analytic narratives?

Answer 98

1. Transition from static snapshots to dynamic understanding of change over time is a challenge in political science research.
2. Analytic narrative merges history and political science to depict sequences of moves by calculating actors leading to specific outcomes.
3. Analytic narratives differ from case studies by focusing on sequences and identifying key driving factors toward outcomes.

Question 99

Use EU as an example to explain analytic narrative

Answer 99

1. The European Union (EU) serves as a model for understanding complex political dynamics.
2. Understanding the EU involves studying its institutions, decision-making processes, and policies, but also its origins and evolution.
3. The EU’s creation stemmed from the desire for peace among European states.
4. Its evolution and the sequence of steps taken reveal insights into its current structure and membership.
5. The EU’s development has been gradual, with each addition reflecting changing perspectives and priorities in European integration.

Question 100

What is process tracing?

Answer 100

The study of the sequence of events
linking a cause to an effect.

e.g what were the steps leading from Hitler’s anti-Semitism to
the Holocaust?

Question 101

What is path dependence?

Answer 101

1. The idea that the outcome of a process depends on earlier decisions that lead down a particular path.
2. implies an emphasis on history
   generally and branching points specifically.

Question 102

Path dependence can be initiated by…

Answer 102

Critical junctures

Question 103

Define critical junctures

Answer 103

A turning point which establishes interests, structures, or institutions persisting through time

Question 104

Sequencing, the order of events, can help us account for path dependence. How?

Answer 104

E.g communist regimes which introduced economic reform
before political liberalization (such as China) were more likely to survive than those beginning the reform process with political change (such as the USSR).

Question 105

Conjuncture as a form of ‘sequence’

Answer 105

In which separate events occur at the same time, enlarging their political impact.

E.g The collision of the First World War with the emergence of working-class socialism

Question 106

What are slow moving causes?

Answer 106

An influence which changes slowly
but, over a long period, dramatically.

E.g Modernization and technological advance, the spread of education, and the growth of the mass media.

Such processes often need to reach a threshold or a tipping point
beyond which a variable begins to exert a visible, dramatic effect