Unit 5 Flashcards
Cognitive Psychology
Memory
Active system that receives information from the senses, encodes it, stores it, and retreives the information from storage. Pieces of memory are called engrams.
Information Processing Model
Encoding- information that comes in is converted to a useable form in the brain. Sensory information into neural information (transduction).
Storage- holding onto the memory for a period of time.
Retrieval- getting the information out of storage.
Parallel Distributed Processing Model
Sees memory as a simultaneous process. Allows people to retrieve multiple aspects of memory at once- not just from one stage at a time. We are encoding, storing, retrieving and taking in sensory information all at the same time.
Levels of Processing Model- Shallow and Deep
Memory’s duration depends on the depth to which the information is processed/encoded. Thinking about something on a deeper level and making connections to your own life, enables information to be retained longer and better.
Shallow- only surface features. Structural- physical and visual information. Phenomic- only auditory information.
Deep (semantic)- creating associations and relating to previous knowledge.
Sensory Memory
Information enters the nervous system through the sensory system- eyes, ears, etc… What is happening around you at any given time. Two types- iconic (visual), echoic (auditory).
Iconic Memory
Visual memory. Lasts for fractions of a second. Old information is constantly being replaced by new memory.
Sperling’s Partial Report Technique
A method of testing memory. Results: you can only “partially” report the stimuli in front of you because you can only pay attention to so many stimuli at once.
Eidetic Memory
The ability to access visual iconic memory over a long period of time. Popularly known as photographic memory.
Echoic Memory
Auditory memory. Limited to what can be heard at any given moment. Have you ever asked, “what?”, waited a few moments, processed what was said to you, and then able to answer it? That’s because your echoic memory is constantly at work, but it wasn’t until you gave more attention to the question that you processed its meaning.
Short Term Memory
If an incoming message is important enough to enter consciousness, it will be moved from sensory memory to STM. Lasts 12-30 seconds without rehearsal. Mostly auditory memories- like a conversation in our own heads. Some may be visualized- popularly known as the “visual sketchpad” in our minds.
Baddeley and Working Memory
The newer model of short-term memory. An active system that processes the information. What you are working on currently and manipulating. An old model of STM said only new information enters and it is encoded from there. But really, most of what enters short term is already a long-term memory, but in a new situation. Newest model of working memory states that the central executive pulls out necessary information from long-term and works with it. Uses either new visual or verbal information to attend to the situation.
Capacity
Digit Span Tests- series of numbers read, and then you are asked to recall the information.
George A. Miller- research on capacity of STM is 7 items; plus or minus 2. 5-9 bits of information on average remembered. You can “fool” STM into holding more information. “Chunking” information- into smaller pieces. Like a phone number or SSN.
Maintenance Rehearsal
Continuing to pay attention to the information in STM. Repetition of an action. Like repeating the lines to a play. Once rehearsal stops, decay occurs.
Self-Referent Encoding
You are more likely to remember something when you involve a personal aspect of yourself into the information.
Long Term Potentiation
Persistent strengthening of synapses in the brain based on recent activity. The more you practice or rehearse something, the more connections that are made in your brain.
Long Term Memory
All information that is kept (more or less) permanently. Scientists believe it is limitless. It is a relatively permanent change in the brain when a memory is formed. Consolidation occurs- the changes that take place in the brain as memories are formed. More likely to store memories that are important to us.
Elaborative Rehearsal
A way to transfer information from STM to LTM by making the information meaningful! Best method for learning is to create as many memory tricks and real-life examples as possible.
Implicit Memory
Memories for things that people know how to do. Closely related to a procedural memory- how to do things step-by-step.
Explicit Memory
Memories for things that people know. Requires conscious thought (dates, events). Two parts- semantic and episodic.
Semantic Memory
The awareness of meanings of words, concepts, terms, math skills, etc… Knowing the “semantics” is knowing the “meaning”.
Episodic Memory
Memories of day-to-day occurrences. Sometimes known as an autobiographical memory. The more meaningful the event- the more likely you are to remember the details.
Semantic Network Model
Assumes that information stored in the brain in a connected fashion- are stored more closely together.
Prospective Memory
Enables us to remember that we need to perform a task later.
Retrieval Cues/Mnemonic
Most issues in retrieval deal with how a memory was put in. You can use cues to help you retrieve memories. Retrieval cues- a stimulus for remembering (memory tricks). Mnemonics: Method of loci- using visualizations in the environment. Acronyms- abbreviation of components. Link Method- creating links in a list of words. Narrative Method- creating a story to remember. Peg-Word Method- linking words and numbers.
Schemas and Clustering
Schemas- the brain organizes information into various categories. Clustering- grouping information to make memorization easier.
Encoding Specificity and State Dependent Learning
Encoding specificity- tendency for the retrieval of a memory to be improved if under the same (specific) conditions in which the memory was encoded. State dependent learning- memories formed in a certain psychological state will be easier to remember in a similar state.
Recall
Memories retrieved with no external cues. Retention is keeping this information long-term.
Recognition
Looking at or listening to information and matching it to what is already in memory.
Tip of the Tongue Effect
The feeling like you know the answer/term, but just can’t remember the whole name/word/concept.
Serial Position Effect
Fault in remembering the beginning and the end of a song/list/concept and forgetting the middle.
Primacy Effect
Remembering the beginning of a list (most rehearsal).
Recency Effect
Remembering the end of a list (last words heard, closest in recall).
Flashbulb Memories
Memories of highly emotional events (fear, horror, joy). Usually refers to collectively shared memories. Can be autobiographical like your wedding day.
Hindsight Bias
When we perceive events that have already happened as being more predictable than they actually were. It’s like looking back and thinking, “Oh, I knew that was going to happen!” even though we actually didn’t know it at the time.
Misinformation Effect
Misleading information that can become a part of the memory. What other people tell you interferes with your own memory of the event. Coined by Elizabeth Loftus.
Source Monitoring Error
Falsely remembering the source of a created memory.
Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve
Forgetting happens quickly within the first hour after learning, then tapers off gradually.
Displacement, Decay, and Motivated Forgetting
Displacement- newest memories push out other recent memories. Only so much can be processed in STM. Memory trace theory and decay- forgetting occurs as memory traces (synapse connections) decay. Motivated forgetting- forgetting negative events either consciously or unconsciously. This is also known as repression in Freudian theory.
Distributed Practice
Spacing out learning gives better retrieval than massed practice (all at once).
Proactive Interference
Tendency for old material to get in the way of new material. Like getting a new cell number and always recalling the old number.
Retroactive Interference
Tendency for newer information to interfere with old information. Like going back to Windows after using a Mac for a month.
