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Final Flashcards

1
Q

Carbon is called ____________ because?

A

the building block of life; carbon atoms are the basis of most molecules that make up living lings

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2
Q

(DESCRIBE USING ROOTS) Monomer

A

one-part; one subunit of a biomolecule

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3
Q

(DESCRIBE USING ROOTS) Polymer

A

many-parts; a strand of many monomers

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4
Q

(DESCRIBE USING ROOTS) Macromolecule

A

large-molecule; large molecules that are critically important to all living things

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5
Q

(DESCRIBE USING ROOTS) Dehydration synthesis

A

of, from water-to make; process that joins monomers together to form polymers by removing water

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6
Q

(DESCRIBE USING ROOTS) Hydrolysis

A

water-to break down; breaks polymer down by adding a molecule of water

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7
Q

(DESCRIBE USING ROOTS) Eukaryote

A

true-nucleus; organisms that have cells containing a nucleus (and therefore, DNA)

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8
Q

Carbohydrates can be broken down, forming?

A

a source of usable chemical energy for cells (like ATP!)

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9
Q

Carbohydrates
-elements
-monomer
-polymer
-shape
-lab test(s) + results
-foods
-cell structure (or place found in a cell)

A

-CHO (carbon, hydrogen & oxygen)
-monosaccharides and disaccharides
-polysaccharides
-carbon rings that form hexagons (or pentagons)
-Benedict’s solution (simple sugars; monosaccharides & disaccharides). If molecule is present: color goes from blue to orange
Lugol’s solution (complex carbohydrates; polymers). If molecule is present: goes from red to purple/black
-sugars, fruits, and veggies (simple) pasta, grains, and beans (complex)
-Cholesterol structures in the cell membrane; energy for the cell (mitochondria)

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10
Q

Lipids
-elements
-monomer
-polymer
-shape
-lab test(s) + results
-foods
-cell structure (or place found in a cell)

A

-CHO (carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen)
-fatty acids
-triglyceride & phospholipids
-triglycerides & phospholipids
-Brown bag test. If molecule is present: paper looks oily
-Saturated: butter
-Unsaturated: oils
-phospholipid layer of the cell membrane (hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails)

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11
Q

A phospholipid contains…

A

glycerol, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate group head

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12
Q

Proteins
-elements
-monomer
-polymer
-shape
-lab test(s) + results
-foods
-cell structure (or place found in a cell)

A

-CHON (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen & nitrogen)
-amino acids
-polypeptides
-folded polypeptide (protein chain)
-Biuret Reagent. If molecule is present: goes from clear to blue
-meats, eggs, & nuts
-assembled by ribosomes

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13
Q

organisms use ___ different amino acids to build proteins, but our bodies can only make ___. We get the others from the foods we eat.

A

20; 12

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14
Q

Amino acids form ____________, which form _____________

A

covalent bonds; peptide bonds

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15
Q

Through peptide bonds, amino acids are linked and become?

A

polypeptides

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16
Q

Proteins differ in the ___ and ______ of amino acids

A

number; order

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17
Q

A specific sequence of amino acids determine?

A

a protein’s structure and function

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18
Q

What causes proteins to fold into specific shapes?

A

hydrogen bonds

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19
Q

Nucleic Acids
-elements
-monomer
-polymer
-shape
-lab test(s) + results
-foods
-cell structure (or place found in a cell)

A

-CHONP (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, & phosphorus)
-nucleotide
-DNA & RNA
-Phosphate and sugar backbone + nitrogenous base (DNA double helix)
-No test! Nucleic Acids found in everything
-Found in every food
-DNA, mRNA, ATP, and tRNA

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20
Q

nucleotides contain…?

A

a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

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21
Q

DNA contains the code that?

A

determines the sequence of amino acids that make up a protein

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22
Q

In chemical reactions, both _______ and _______ stay conserved

A

matter; energy

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23
Q

What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? (structure-wise)

A

Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus nor membrane-bound organelles, but eukaryotes have both of those. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have ribosomes (composed of RNA and protein and act as the site of protein synthesis), cytoplasm, and cell membrane.

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24
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Cytoplasm

A

fills the cell; everything in the cell outside the nucleus is in the cytoplasm

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25
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Ribosomes

A

located throughout the cell; site of protein synthesis (aka translation)

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26
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Cell membrane

A

regulates what goes in and out of the cell; forms the cell boundary

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27
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Cell wall

A

this rigid structure gives protection, support, and shape to cells in plants, algae, fungi, and prokaryotes.

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28
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Centriol

A

small cylinder-shaped organelle made of protein tubes arranged in a circle that is used to aid in the process of mitosis

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29
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Chloroplast

A

an organelle found in photosynthetic cells (plants, algae) where photosynthesis takes place

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30
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Cytoskeleton

A

the cytoplasmic network of protein filaments that plays a major role in cell movement, shape, & division

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31
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Endoplasmic reticulum

A

a system of membranes that is found in a cell’s cytoplasm and that assists in the production, processing, and transport of proteins and in the production of lipids

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32
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Golgi apparatus

A

organelle that helps make and package materials to be transported out of the cell

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33
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Lyosome

A

organelle that contains enzymes; the “digestive system” of a cell

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34
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Mitochondrion

A

the organelle that is surrounded by two membranes and that is the site of cellular respiration, which produces ATP for energy

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35
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Nucleus

A

in a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell’s DNA and that has a role in processes such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction

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36
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Vacuole

A

the organelle that is used to store materials, such as water, food, or enzymes, that are needed by the cell. Plant cells have large, permanent vacuoles while animal cells have smaller, temporary ones that come and go

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37
Q

(ORGANELLE + FUNCTION) Vesicle

A

a small cavity or sac that contains materials in a eukaryotic cell; it forms when part of the cell membrane surround the materials to be taken into the cell or transported within the cell

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38
Q

How do major organelles relate to biomolcues?

A

mitochondrion makes energy from carbs, the phosopholipid layer in the cell membrane, ribosomes assist in making proteins, nucleic acids are DNA and mRNA in the nucleus and ATP and tRNA throughout the cell

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39
Q

what are the two major demands of the nucleus?

A

1) DNA must be carefully protected 2) DNA must be available for use at proper times

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40
Q

The cells DNA is enclosed in a double membrane part of the nucleus called ?

A

the nuclear envelope

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41
Q

Why do cells typically divide rather than continue growing?

A

Cells typically divide rather than continuing to grow because the cell needs to constantly make sure it is at its healthiest condition. If the cell kept growing, there would be a point where the surface area to volume ratio is too large, and nutrients wouldn’t get evenly distributed throughout the cell

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42
Q

What happens at each stage of the cell cycle?

A

Gap1 - cell grows, replicates organelles, and carries out normal functions
Synthesis - copying of the cells DNA (DNA Synthesis)
Gap 2 - Additional growth, preparation and checking for errors before Mitosis
Mitosis - Cell division (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, & Telophase + Cytokinesis)

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43
Q

What are the longest and shortest stages of the cell cycle

A

longest = Gap 1 (11 hours)
shortest = mitosis (1 hour)

44
Q

What happens to the cell cycle to cause tumors and cancer, and how does this inform treatment options?

A

Cancer is unchecked cell growth. It can be caused by carcinogens that cause DNA damage. Normally, many tumor suppressors work to regulate the cycle at specific checkpoints in order to prevent damaged cells from replicating.

Mutations in genes can cause cancer by inhibiting these normal controls/ checkpoints, or by accelerating cell division rates (e.g., skipping G1). As a mass of cancerous cells grows, it can develop into a tumor.

Mutations include DNA mutations as well as chromosomal mutations (e.g., deletions, insertions, and translocation).

45
Q

In what cases do cells undergo apoptosis? (relate to situations like developing embryos and DNA damage)

A

apoptosis removes unhealthy or damaged cells, so whenever getting rid of cells is necessary.

46
Q

What is the difference between a benign tumor and a malignant tumor?

A

Unlike benign tumors, which remain in place, malignant tumors spread throughout the body.

46
Q

the best shape for surface area-volume ratio is? what parts are normally this shape?

A

a cylinder; nerves running through our bodies

47
Q

What is the structure and function of DNA? (remember, there are a lot of things to consider here - consider the structure of the monomer and the polymer)

A

DNA is a nucleic acid, a complex biomolecule made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. It contains the instructions for building proteins in cells.
Its structure is a double helix
-Sugar + phosphate = “backbone” or “ladder rails”
-Nitrogenous base = “steps of the ladder” or “steps on the stairs”
Its monomer is a single nucleotide

48
Q

What is the structure and function of a chromosome?

A

to have copies of genes (carry genetic information)
-1/2 is a chromatid, so two chromatids = a chromosome
-looks like an X

49
Q

What is the structure and function of a protein? What types of proteins are there?

A

-determines how it will function
-how they fold is important (if the amino acid structure is messed up, it wont fold correctly; denatured).
-Structural, contractile, storage, defense, transport, signaling, and enzymes

50
Q

how many chromosomes do our bodies have?

A

46; 23 from each parent

51
Q

why are tumors harmful?

A

cancer cells do not perform the specialized functions needed by the body, therefore the body has rapidly dividing cells that require lots of materials but contribute nothing to the body’s functions

52
Q

Describe the process of DNA replication & include the proteins that function in replication

A

-1) Enzymes unzip the DNA double helix
-2) Free floating nucleotides pair with the nucleotides of the existing DNA strand
-3) DNA polymerase bonds the two nucleotides together
-4) The result is now 2 DNA strands, identical to the first
-although its called “DNA replication”, the DNA does nothing! enzymes are what actually do the work.
-some enzymes unzip the double helix to separate the strands of DNA, and others hold the helix apart

53
Q

During replication, a new strand of DNA can be synthesized when?

A

there is a template to guide it

54
Q

Replication ensures that?

A

every cell has a complete set of identical genetic information

55
Q

DNA replication occurs during?

A

Interphase

56
Q

What are enzymes?

A

specialized proteins that catalyze biological reactions inside cells

57
Q

What happens when an enzyme is denatured?

A

-When an enzyme is denatured, the temperature or pH outside its optimal zone causes the enzyme to change shape
-This affects the enzyme’s ability to function, and it not longer fits in the substrate

58
Q

In prokaryotic cells, replication, transcription, and translation all happen at? and occur in?

A

the same time; the cytoplasm

59
Q

In Eukaryotic cells, replication and transcription occur in? translation?

A

the nucleus; the cytoplasm

60
Q

You can think of RNA as a ______________ of DNA, that is used and then ___________.

A

temporary copy; destroyed

61
Q

What are the three ways in which RNA differs from DNA?

A

-1) the sugar in RNA is ribose
-2) RNA has the base pair Uracil
-3) RNA is single stranded, while DNA is double

62
Q

What is the sugar the forms the backbone of an RNA molecule?

A

ribose

63
Q

Describe the process of DNA transcription into mRNA

A

-1) RNA polymerase assemble on the DNA strand and unwind the DNA
-2) RNA polymerase (using only 1 strand of DNA) strings together a complementary strand of RNA nucleotides
-3) The DNA helix zips back together
-4) The RNA strand detaches

64
Q

Replication and transcription are similar because…?

A

-1) they both occur in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
-2) both are catalyzed by enzymes
-3) both involve unwinding of the DNA double helix
-4) both involve complementary base pairing to the DNA strand

65
Q

Replication and transcription are different because…?

A

Replication only occurs once during the cell cycle, and only needs to make one copy of its DNA. Transcription on the other hand occurs over and over again to provide the amount of proteins the cell needs.

66
Q

What is the reading frame?

A

how codons are read; without spaces as a series of three non-overlaping nucleotides

67
Q

Describe the process of mRNA being translated into a protein

A

-1) the exposed codon attracts a complementary tRNA molecule with an amino acid
-2) the ribosome helps form a peptide bond between the two amino acids. The ribosome then breaks the bond with the tRNA molecule
-3) the ribosome pulls the mRNA strand the length of one codon. The tRNA molecule shifts into the third site (aka the exit site)
-4) the first site is empty again, exposing another mRNA codon

68
Q

What happens if replication, transcription, or translation make a mistake?

A

-In replication, DNA polymerase will correct mistakes. It is very rare that there is an error, and usually apoptosis gets rid of it. If not, there is a mutation
-In transcription, a mistake means a mutation that changes the mRNA, meaning that the amino acid chain will be messed up, and the protein could end up wrongly folded
-In translation, this will also lead to a messed up protein

69
Q

Gene expression is often related to whether a gene is located on an? or?

A

an autosome; sex chromosome

70
Q

Autosomes are every chromosome that?

A

does not play a role in sex determination

71
Q

Both chromosomes in a pair have the same genes, but they do not have the same?

A

alleles

72
Q

When a disorder is caused by a recessive allele, there must be ___________ present.

A

two copies

73
Q

Females can only pass an __ chromosome to an offspring, but males can pass?

A

X; X OR Y

74
Q

Genes on the Y chromosome are responsible for?

A

development of the male offspring

75
Q

Which (X or Y) chromosome has more influence over phenotype?

A

X

76
Q

In males, there are no second copies of sex-linked genes to
mask the effects of another allele. This means that?

A

even if all the alleles of sex-linked genes in a male are recessive, they will be expressed

77
Q

In the cell’s of females, one of the two X chromosomes is randomly?

A

turned off

78
Q

What is meiosis and what role does it play in sexual reproduction?

A

-a form of asexual reproduction that occurs in germ cells to produce gametes
-divides a diploid cell into haploid cells

79
Q

What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

A

genotype is an organism’s inherited characteristics while phenotype is shown characteristics

80
Q

What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous?

A

homozygous = identical
heterozygous = different

81
Q

Who is Gregor Mendel and what is meant by Mendelian genetics?

A

Mendel was an Austrian monk who brought an experimental and quantitative approach to the study of genetics in the 1800s. He used the results of his cross-pollination experiments with pea plants to calculate the mathematical ratios in which traits appeared. He proposed the Law of segregation and the law of independent assortment.

82
Q

Compare and contrast incomplete dominance, codominance, polygenic, and sex-linked inheritance as examples of non-Mendelian genetics.

A

-Incomplete dominance (red + white = pink)
-Codominance (red + white = splotchy red & white)
-Polygenic (traits produced by two or more genes)(eye color)
-Sex-linked Inheritance (males express X or Y, females only express X)

83
Q

______ and _______ can also interact to determine human traits

A

genes; environment

84
Q

Mendel only studied traits produced by genes on ________. He did not know much about _____________.

A

autosomes; chromosomes

85
Q

Describe the steps of meiosis

A

-1) the nuclear membrane breaks down and spindle fibers start to assemble
-2) the spindle fibers align
-3) the paired homologous chromosomes separate and move towards opposite sides of the cell
-4) spindle fibers disassemble, and the cell undergoes cytokinesis
-5) nuclear membrane breaks down
-6) spindle fibers align
-7) sister chromatids are pulled apart
-8) nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes. End result is 4 haploid cells

86
Q

ONLY _________ can be carriers of sex-linked disorders

A

females

87
Q

How did Joseph Priestley’s work inform what we know about photosynthesis and respiration?

A

-It helped us understand that oxygen was needed for cellular respiration, and therefore also photosynthesis.
-Proved that plants and animals are dependent on each other

88
Q

What structures do plants have that aid in the process of photosynthesis (i.e., If photosynthesis requires water, how does that get up to the leaves from the ground? If photosynthesis requires sunlight, how is that captured by the plant? If the products of photosynthesis are required by other cells in the plant besides the leaves, how do they get around?)

A

-Xylem, which helps transport water throughout the plant
-Phloem, which distributes sugars throughout the plant
-Carbon dioxide goes into the leaves through the stomata
-Sunlight is absorbed by chloroplasts
-Water is absorbed by plant roots

89
Q

What are the equations for photosynthesis and respiration?

A

6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O2
C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O

90
Q

What role do photosynthesis and respiration play in the carbon cycle?

A

Photosynthesis moves carbon from the abiotic atmosphere to the biotic plants (or other photosynthetic organisms). Respiration moves carbon from the biotic living organisms to the abiotic atmosphere. They’re almost like a mini-carbon cycle on their own without any other processes like decomposition coming into play.

91
Q

What are the structures and functions and steps of the light-dependent reactions?

A

Thylakoid membrane: contains all of the molecules and proteins that function in these reactions
Photosystems with chlorophyll: absorb the light energy and delocalize the excited electrons so that they can travel along the ETC; Water splits, providing the electrons for the ETC (a by-product is oxygen, which we benefit from)
Electron transport chain: pass electrons along the membrane to create an electrochemical gradient
ATP synthase: produces ATP that will carry energy to the light-independent reactions
NADP+ →NADPH: carry energy to the light-independent reactions

92
Q

What are the structures and functions and steps of the Calvin cycle?

A

Stroma: this space surrounding the granum stacks in the chloroplasts; location of the Calvin Cycle (the light-independent reactions)
Rubisco is the enzyme that catalyzes the carbon fixation portion of the cycle. RuBP is a 5-carbon molecule that becomes an unstable 6-carbon compound combined with carbon dioxide. This unstable compound splits into two molecules of 3PGA. RuBP is regenerated during the third stage of the Calvin cycle with help from ATP’s energy.
NADPH and ATP deliver energy that converts 3PGA into 3GP.
G3P gains elections during the reduction step. It takes two G3P molecules to make one glucose molecule.

93
Q

What are the structures and functions and steps of glycolysis?

A

Glycolysis is basically the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid. It is the first step of both aerobic (Kreb’s Cycle) and anaerobic (fermentation) respiration. It occurs in the cytosol of the cell instead of in an organelle.

94
Q

What are the structures and functions and steps of the Krebs cycle?

A

The Krebs Cycle is composed of many redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions and occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria.
NADH and FADH2 are electron carriers that take electrons to the electron transport chain.
While not exactly part of the Krebs Cycle, the ETC is in the inner membrane of the mitochondria and uses the electrochemical gradient and ATP synthase to produce the bulk of the ATP required by the organism.

95
Q

What do organisms do if they don’t have access to oxygen in order to get energy? Describe.

A

If there isn’t enough oxygen, organisms can do fermentation which is an anaerobic (without oxygen) reaction. Lactic acid fermentation happens in our muscles if we don’t have enough oxygen during strenuous exercise. In this reaction, glucose is broken down and lactic acid is made. Yeast performs ethanol fermentation where glucose is also used to make ethanol and carbon dioxide.

96
Q

How does energy flow through an ecosystem? How is some energy lost and what do the calculations for that look?

A

Energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction (like the band) from the energy source to the receiver.
Some energy is lost as heat at each trophic level
10% of the energy from the previous trophic level is given to the next (EX: 2000 -> 200 -> 20).

97
Q

What are the abiotic and biotic components of the carbon cycle? How does carbon move from abiotic to biotic and back to abiotic again?

A

The abiotic components are water, atmosphere, and rock. The biotic components include bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, especially since all living things have carbon in them (remember, it is part of all of the biomolecules we learned about – carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids). Carbon moves through ecosystems through photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition.

98
Q

What are the major reservoirs of the carbon cycle?

A

The ocean and plant biomass (like the cellulose in trees) store carbon for long periods of time. Figure 11.2-2 includes disruptions to the carbon cycle to show how human activities add additional carbon to the atmosphere.

99
Q

What are the abiotic and biotic components of the nitrogen cycle? How does nitrogen move from abiotic to biotic and back to abiotic again?

A

Because nitrogen is found in proteins and nucleic acids, it is found in all life forms, such as bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. The abiotic components of the nitrogen cycle include the atmosphere and soil.

100
Q

What is the major reservoir of the nitrogen cycle? Why is this problematic to the biosphere?

A

Nitrogen is a limiting factor for life, because even though it is abundant in the atmosphere (the atmosphere is its major reservoir), it is there in a form that plants cannot use. All life depends on nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

101
Q

How does the sun drive the nutrient cycles?

A

The Sun’s energy drives nutrient cycles in two ways: It catalyzes the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, which fixes carbon from the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere into the carbon in glucose in photosynthetic organisms, which form the basis of food chains (the only food chains this doesn’t apply to is those based on chemosynthesis, which we haven’t covered really so you won’t be tested over it). This is what pushes the carbon cycle. The Sun’s energy also warms the Earth, which causes water to evaporate into a gas in the atmosphere and causes wind to blow when the air heats up and currents in water to flow. All of this movement of the abiotic factors on Earth helps to move nutrients (like nitrogen and phosphorus) around the globe within and between ecosystems.

102
Q

An increase in muscle cell size and volume due to use is called?

A

Hypertrophy

103
Q

anaerobic respiration is also called?

A

fermentation

104
Q

A large drop in temperature would affect?

A

both photosynthesis and cellular respiration

105
Q

Cellular respiration occurs in?

A

the mitochondria

Biology (11 decks)

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