1848, a turning point towards modern Europe Flashcards
syllabus
Marx, Le Dix Huit Brumaire de Louis Bonaparte, historical events occur twice (1 tragedy, 2 farces: this is the case for LNB and Napoleon). Revolutions take Antiquity as their inspiration & try to exalt a grandiose character to hide the fact that they are bourgeois revolutions. LNB confiscated the revolution of 1848: proletarian revolutions are the only ones that perpetually call themselves into question. Three periods in the Revolution:
The February period: characterised by the setting up of a provisional government, with all those who had contributed to the Revolution = haste & confusion.
Constitution and foundation of the Republic between May 1848 and May 1849: the National Assembly is bourgeois = leads to the June Days (= proletariat takes a back seat).
The bourgeois republic established
Sand, Letter to the members of the Social Committee, mid-April 1848, the SU breaks the links that had been established between men and women of the proletariat = re-launches an active campaign for the right to vote, of which George Sand is made the muse (but she refuses). Priority to social issues (looking after the people before making “aristocratic” demands), role of persuasion in the domestic sphere, + a woman who does not have civil rights cannot be elected (she is a puppet). France’s lag can be explained by the fact that women’s suffrage has been viewed too much through the prism of the individual (rather than that of the community: women represent women).
- The European Revolutionary wave
summary
a/ Reasons for protest
1.1 Reasons for Protest
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Political Background (5):
- The Congress of Vienna and conflicts following the years 1820-1830 set the stage for revolutionary uprisings.
- Absolute monarchies dominated Europe, suppressing dissent through censorship and arrests.
- Lack of legitimate spaces for dissent led to underground and subversive actions.
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National Emancipation Movements (6):
- Italian, German, and Austrian territories witnessed demands for national unity.
- Giuseppe Mazzini’s “Young Italy” and “Young Europe” movements aimed to federate nationalist activists.
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Political Protests (7):
- Political discontent surged in 1845-1847 across Europe.
- Examples include Polish uprisings in Galicia, demands for autonomy in Hungary, and constitutional demands in Prussia and Switzerland.
- Pope Pius IX briefly symbolized hopes for Italian liberals.
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Economic and Social Crisis (8):
- Economic downturn since 1845-1846, marked by subsistence crises, diseases, and famines.
- The crisis affected both rural and urban areas, leading to peasant uprisings and approximately 50,000 deaths in Belgium.
revolutionary conflagration
The Revolutionary Fire
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Early Events (9):
- Revolution began before Parisian events, with the Sicilian uprising in January 1848.
- Chain reactions spread through Italy, involving Piedmont-Sardinia, Tuscany, and the Papal States.
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Europeanization of Movement (10):
- Vienna’s March 13 events triggered revolutionary aspirations across the Austrian Empire, Italy, and the German Confederation.
- Hungary, Prussia (Berlin uprising), and Lombardy-Venetia experienced significant unrest.
- The wave of protests didn’t uniformly affect all European countries.
Politicisation of the masses
Impact on Society (12):
- Insurrections broke elitist and authoritarian policies, intensifying the politicization of society.
- Cities and rural areas saw people from diverse backgrounds participating in protests.
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Press and Public Sphere (13):
- Insurrections relaxed censorship, leading to a surge in press and print culture.
- Newspapers flourished, allowing the exchange of ideas and the emergence of new visions of society.
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Clubs and Associations (14):
- Clubs and associations became key places for debate and confrontation.
- Political sociability surged, promoting local sociability and republicanism.
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Women’s Participation (15):
- Women actively participated in the events of 1848, both on barricades and in the press.
- Feminist movements called for civil and political equality, facing resistance and criticism.
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Substantial Reforms (16):
- Public space opening and politicization led to substantial reforms.
- Governments granted constitutions and liberal measures as a response to the destabilizing revolutionary aspirations.
The revolutionary wave of 1848 thus emerged from a complex interplay of political, social, and economic factors, triggering widespread protests and reshaping the political landscape across Europe.
difficult experience of power - the second republic of france
summary
a time of promises
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The Difficult Experience of Power: The Second French Republic
#### 1.1 A European Phenomenon (1848 Revolution)- Revolutionary wave and its varying impacts across Europe.
- French example as a focal point.
- Institutional rupture: Fall of the July monarchy and the advent of the Second Republic.
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A Time of Promises
#### 2.1 Formation of the Provisional Government- Key figures in the provisional government.
- Two months of political effervescence and hope.
- “Lyrical illusion” and the mysticism of people and freedom.
- Luxembourg Commission and socialist-republican ideas.
- The right to work and reduction of working hours.
- National workshops and socialist thinkers.
- Expansion of electorate and concerns.
- The disappointment of left-wing Republicans.
- Impact on the composition of the National Constituent Assembly.
- Abolition in the colonies and its significance.
- Initiatives of Victor Schœlcher.
- Challenges faced by the “new free” citizens.
republican divisions
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Republican Divisions
#### 3.1 Post-Election Conflicts and Legitimacy- Disappointment of left-wing Republicans after the April 1848 elections.
- Conflict between revolutionary street and ballot boxes.
- May 15, 1848: Invasion of the Assembly and arrests.
- Closure of “national workshops” and social crisis.
- Repression of Parisian labor movement in June 1848.
- Impact on Republican freedoms and the fracture within the Republican family.
- Debates on the right to work.
- Tensions and synthesis in the constitutional drafting.
- Risk of confrontation with the strict separation of powers.
The conservative republic and its downfall
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The Conservative Republic and Its Downfall
#### 4.1 Presidential Election of December 1848- Introduction of the presidential election.
- Candidates and Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte’s unexpected success.
- Implications for the Republican figures of the February revolution.
- Dominance of the “Party of the Order” in the Assembly.
- Conservative laws: Falloux Act and electoral restrictions.
- Marginalization of the Republican left.
- President’s popularity and constitutional restrictions.
- December 2, 1851: Coup d’état and consolidation of power.
- Opposition and insurrections in response to the coup.
- reflux and aftermath
Reflux and Aftermath
The Frankfurt Parliament and the Challenges of German Unity
In the wake of the 1848 revolutions, Germany experienced a surge of liberal and radical movements. The Frankfurt Parliament, convened in March-April 1848, aimed to create a unified Germany through universal male suffrage. However, internal divisions emerged, particularly regarding the scope of German unification – “Little Germany” without Austria or “Greater Germany” incorporating all German-speaking populations. These debates and challenges led to a failed attempt at a constitution, with the Frankfurt Parliament dissolving in 1849.
Repression and the Hungarian Uprising
The Austrian government, responding to the revolutionary spirit, undertook a winter takeover in 1848-1849. In Hungary, demands for autonomy clashed with Habsburg rule. Despite initial successes by Hungarian forces, the intervention of 200,000 Russian soldiers alongside the imperial army led to the capitulation of Hungarian separatists in August 1849. The aftermath witnessed severe repression, with leaders arrested and executed, and the Austrian Empire consolidating its control
The elusive german unity
Unsettled Path to a Unified Germany
The Germanic territories experienced intense mobilization in 1848. The Frankfurt Parliament grappled with defining the contours of a unified Germany, leading to internal conflicts over the exclusion of Austria. The King of Prussia’s withdrawal of support for a patriotic war and the challenge of “Little Germany” versus “Greater Germany” added complexity. Despite electing Frederick William IV as hereditary emperor in 1849, the parliament dissolved, signaling the failure of the parliamentary path to German unity.
Crushing of the Hungarian Uprising
Austria’s cautious approach, influenced by the Hungarian uprising and the Slavic congress in Prague, marked the winter of 1848-1849. Repression in Vienna and the use of other national groups to counter Hungarian claims exacerbated the crisis. The Hungarian separatists, proclaiming independence in 1849, faced internal and external challenges, leading to their capitulation. The aftermath witnessed the abolition of the constitution and strict censorship, revealing the extent of conflicts within the Austrian Empire.
The Austrian takeover
Italian Wars and the Piedmontese Campaign
In Italy, the revolutionary fervor extended to the Piedmontese king, Charles Albert, declaring war on Austria in March 1848. Despite volunteer support, the Piedmontese suffered a defeat at Custoza in July 1848. International volunteers, drawn by liberal and national ideals, played a significant role in the Italian wars. The lack of external support and a subsequent defeat in Novara in 1849 led to Charles Albert’s abdication.
Rome and Venice: Republican Aspirations
Central Italy witnessed renewed radical activities in 1849, with Rome and Venice at the forefront of Republican aspirations. The Republic of Rome was proclaimed in 1849, with Democrats and Republicans pushing for freedom and fighting against Austria. However, the survival of these republics depended on French support. The French intervention in June 1849 aimed at restoring the Pope’s temporal powers, leading to the end of the Roman Republic and the capitulation of Venice to Austrian forces in August. #### Conclusion: Legacy of the Revolutions of 1848
The revolutions of 1848 had a profound impact on Europe, influencing citizenship, democracy, and national mobilizations. Despite the military failures and subsequent repression, the revolutions ushered in significant changes, such as universal male suffrage, the abolition of serfdom, and the awareness of conflicts necessary for countering Austrian influence. The legacy of 1848 contributed to the transformation of political landscapes and the emergence of new collective actions in the mid-19th century.
dates
1831: Young Italy, Mazzini
May 1832: Hambach festival
1833: Progressive abolition of slavery in Britain
1834: Young Europe, Mazzini
1845: Jeanne Deroin’s campaign for the legislative elections
1846: Austria occupies Ferrara
1846: Election of Pius IX
1846-1847: economic and social crisis
1847: Opposition elected to the Hungarian Diet
12 January 1848: Insurrection in Palermo
9 February 1848: Ferdinand I (Sicily) grants a Const.
22-24 February 1848: February Revolution
27 February 1848: Baden insurrection
3rd March 1848: speech by Kossuth calling for a parliamentary government for Hungary
5 March 1848: SU decree
13th March 1848: Riots in Vienna
15 March 1848: Pest uprising
16-18 March 1848: Uprisings in Prussia (Berlin = barricades)
18-22 March 1848: 5 Milan Days
March 1848: Charles Albert grants a Constitution
25 March 1848: Charles Albert declares war on Austria
March-April 1848: Vorparlement
16 April 1848: Republican demonstration
23 April 1848: First legislative election in the SU
27 April 1848: Abolition of slavery (although not immediately effective)
15 May 1848 : Republican demonstrations challenging the majority in power
June 1848 : June Days = closure of the National Workshops
July 1848: Hungary raises 200,000 men to fight against the Croats
27 July 1848: defeat at Custoza
October 1848: Repression of the Viennese uprising
4th November 1848: Adoption of the new Constitution
10 December 1848: Presidential election in the SU
1848: between 1 and 1.5 million Germans join political clubs
Spring 1849: Second wave of revolution in the German Confederation
14th April 1849: Kossuth and others proclaim the independence of the Austrian Empire.
13th August 1849: Capitulation of Vilagos
March 1850: Falloux law = more room for the Church
31 May 1850: law restricting male SU (WHAT NAME)
November 1850: Olmutz “retreat
1850 : new Constitution in Prussia (= revision of that of 1848)
2 December 1851: coup d’état by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte
personalities
Mazzini, founder of the Young Italy movement (1831) then Young Europe (1834) = nationalist for the development of nationalities
Pius IX, Pope elected in 1846, who introduced liberal reforms = integration of laity into papal governments
François-Guillaume IV, King of Prussia, who granted a Constitution in 1848, raised hopes of German unification and “backed down”. He refused the imperial crown offered to him by Parliament because he did not want it to be his own + rewrote the Constitution in 1850.
Ferdinand II, King of the Two Sicilies, promised to adopt a Constitution in January 1850.
Louis-Philippe, King of the French, forced to abdicate in February 1848.
Guizot, President of the Council of Ministers forced to resign in February 1848.
Frédéric Sorrieu, painter, The Universal, Democratic and Social Republic
Marx, criticised a revolution that was too idealistic, romantic and not proletarian enough.
Louis Blanc, member of the provisional government of the Second Republic, socialist republican, who initiated the National Workshops
Proudhon, an anarchist socialist who wanted to do away with the property rentier, in favour of an ideal of mutualism and association.
Pierre Leroux, theorist of republican socialism = balance between all the terms of the motto “liberty, equality, fraternity”, against absolute individualism & absolute socialism.
Cabet, utopian socialist (towards communism = utopia of Icaria)
Jeanne Deroin, woman who campaigned for the 1849 legislative elections even though it was unconstitutional.
George Sand, French woman of letters, who refused to stand in the legislative elections.
Marie D’Agoult, woman of letters who signed her name Daniel Stern.
Friedrich Hecker, revolutionary from the Grand Duchy of Baden, elected deputy to the Frankfurt Parliament + proclaimed the Republic in his province.
Alphonse de Lamartine, poet and politician (romantic revolutionary) in power under the Second Republic.
Ouvrier Albert, (Alexandre-Albert Martin) = worker who took part in the Trois Glorieuses and was then appointed to the provisional government thanks to Louis Blanc (first member of a French government to come from a working-class background).
Raspail, Republican arrested for demonstrating on 15 May 1848 and contesting the results of the ballot box.
Eugène Cavaignac, a general who embodied LNB’s party of order & who repressed the workers’ movement of the “June Days”.
Tocqueville, opposed the right to work enshrined in the Constitution.
Thiers, supporter of LNB during his presidential campaign (thinks he will be able to use him BUT goes into opposition).
Ledru-Rollin, leader of the Republican Left.
Victor Schoelcher, deputy in charge of the abolition of slavery.
Alfred de Windischgratz, sent by Austria-Hungary to suppress the uprising in Prague.
Ferdinand I, sovereign of Austria-Hungary, abdicated in favour of Franz Joseph.
Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria and then Austria-Hungary from 1848 (aged 18).
Lajos Kossuth, leader of the Hungarian uprising (more of a symbol, agitator)
Batthyany, leader of the Hungarian uprising (head of the Diet).
Petofi, leader of the Hungarian uprising (composes the national anthem + participates in the executive).
Radetzky, marshal sent by Austria-Hungary to put down the uprisings in Milan.
Charles-Albert, King of Piedmont-Sardinia, who, faced with the aspirations of his people, grants a Constitution + declares war on Austria-Hungary (loses).
Weitling, a political exile in Paris who writes L’Humanité as it is or as it should be.
Manine, head of the provisional government of Venice, who asks to be attached to Piedmont-Sardinia.
opinions
Notions
Circulation of the revolution - Hambach festival - Young Italy - Young Europe - Vormärz - Diet - Three Glorious Days - Banquet Campaign - 5 Days of Milan - barricade - public space - abolition of serfdom in Galicia - Baden insurrection - mystique of the SU - “republicans of tomorrow” - “June Days” - Ateliers de la Vormärz “June Days” - National Workshops - “Party of Order” - coup d’état of 2 December 1848 - abolition of slavery - Vorparlement - Frankfurt Parliament - Olmütz “retreat” - surrender of Vilagos - Italia fara da se - defeat of Custoza
Analyses by historians
Palacky, Histoire du peuple tchèque en Bohême et en Moravie (History of the Czech people in Bohemia and Moravia), emergence of nationality claims with the drafting of texts (1830-1840) to define the nationalities.
Maurice Agulhon, La République au village, works on the role of the countryside in the revolutionary experience, initially in Provence, then as a specialist in the French Republic in general and its symbols.
