1951-64 Flashcards
(133 cards)
1
Q
1951: Conservative Results
A
13,717,538/ 321 / 48.0%
Majority of 17 seats
2
Q
1951: Labour Results
A
13,948,605 / 295 / 48.8%
3
Q
1951: Liberal Results
A
730,556 / 6 / 2.5%
4
Q
1951: Other results
A
198,969 / 3 / 0.7%
5
Q
Reasons for 1951 Labour defeat: Labour Weaknesses
A
- After 6 years in office, Atlee’s government was worn down by economic difficulties
- Many members of the cabinet had been part of government since 1940, e.g. Ernest Bevin
- Serious divisions had emerged over economic, welfare and foreign policy; Wilson, Bevan and Freeman resigned over perscription charges by Gaitskell in 1951
- Shrinking of majority in 1950 harmed morale
- Trade unions felt like Labour had been slow to react to workers demands
- Labour found it difficult to shake off its image of austerity, rationing and taxation
6
Q
Reasons for 1951 Labour Defeat: Conservative Strengths
A
- R.A Butler had brought new ideas and confidence to the party
- 1950 election saw an influx of Conservative MPs who were eager to displace the tiring Labour government
- Lord Woolton had reformed the party finances putting the party in a far better situation
-Criticism of the nationalisation of iron and steel was popular in public - Conservative party portrayed itself to be upholders of liberty and individualism against state centralisation
7
Q
Atlee Iron and Steel Act
A
- Passed 1949 but doesn’t come into effect until Feb 1951
8
Q
Churchill’s role in his government
A
Was 77 when he became PM. Major stroke in 1953. The Chancellor R. A. Butler effectively ran the show
9
Q
When is rationing ended?
A
4th July 1954
10
Q
When is Steel Denationalised (Churchill)
A
14 May 1953
11
Q
When is Accession of QE
A
6th Feb 1952
12
Q
When does Britain detonate first Atomic Bomb
A
3rd Oct 1952
13
Q
When does Korean War end?
A
July 27 1953
14
Q
Butler political history
A
Chancellor 1951-5
Home Secretary 1957-62
Foreign Secretary 1962-4
Minister of education throughout WW2
15
Q
What was the Industrial Charter?
A
Presented by Butler in 1947. Recognised need for a mixed economy. Acceptance of Keynesian economics. Promises to continue goals to maintain full employment, expand welfare state, keeping Britain’s military defence programme and developing nuclear weapons
16
Q
Economic change under Churchill
A
- Exports picked up due to impact of Marshall Plan
- Britain was heavily indebted by wartime borrowing, defence spending and NHS
17
Q
What is “Butskellism”
A
Cross party consensus on matters of finance and the welfare state
- Coined by the Economist in 1954
- However Gaitskell was in favour of more taxation
- It is clear that all administrations governed from the centre because thats where the electorate was
18
Q
1955 Election: Conservative result
A
13,286,569 / 344 / 49.7%
19
Q
1955 Election: Labour Result
A
12,404,970 / 277 / 46.4%
20
Q
1955 Election: Liberal Results
A
722,405 / 6 / 2.7%
21
Q
1955 Election: Other results
A
346,554 / 3 / 1.2%
22
Q
Eden’s attitude at start of tenure
A
He had waited longer than expected to become PM
- Lots of criticism towards the Churchill government as lacking “the smack of firm government”
- He was keen to silence criticism by making a major foreign affairs success
23
Q
Background to Suez Crisis 1956
A
- Colonel Nassar, described by Macmillan as the “Hitler of the middle east”, had been promised US and British loads for the construction of the Aswan Dam on the upper Nile river which he staked his future on. However when the USA learned that Nasser had approached the Soviet Union for aid it withdrew its funding
- In order to finance the project, he announced the nationalisation of the Suez Canal in July 1956 despite Britain owning 40% of the Canal.
- Eden declared that Nasser should not be allowed to “leave his thumb on Britain’s windpipe”, which related to the essential quantities of oil that travelled through the Canal from the middle east
- Britain, who had a major stake in the canal, and the French, who were resentful of Nasser’s support for Algerian nationalists in French Algeria, started to apply diplomatic pressure and the US supported this however Egypt did not budge
- Britain and France referred it to the UN security council however the Soviet Union vetoed any act against Egypt
- Eden therefore launched a secret plan. Israel, who were eager to launch a major attack on Egypt as the Sinai peninsula had become a hotbed for terror attacks on Israel, were to attack the Egyptians and the French and British would occupy the Canal to form a buffer region as peacekeepers.
- The plan was concocted in mid October, with Macmillan threatening to resign if the plan did not go ahead, and on 29th October the Israelis attacked the Egyptians across the Gaza Strip and the Sinai peninsula. On the 30th October the Anglo-French ultimatum arrived in Cairo and on the 31st Anglo-French forces landed in Suez.
24
Q
Suez: When do Israelis / Britain and French attack Egypt
A
Israelis attack 29th Oct
French/British Attack 31st Oct
25
Suez Invasion
- From 29th Oct to 5th Nov, Operation Kadesh began (Israeli operation of Sinai), Israeli forces thrusted southwards towards Thamad and Tur whilst clearing the Gaza Strip in combination with parachute drops on 29th in Suez.
- A set of ridges known as the "Hedgehog", lay above Abu Uwayulah a strategic road centre for the Sinai and was defended by 3,000 Egyptians of the 17th and 18th battalions of the 3rd Infantry Division and were well fortified. The IDF made a breakthrough at the al-Dayyiqa gap and were able to seize the point
- With assistance of French bombing and Napalm strikes the IDF was able to seize the port Sharm el-Sheikh, the last Israeli objective.
Anglo-French forces launched an extensive bombing campaign followed by paradrop landings and then seaborne landings at Port Said. Egyptian resistance was varied with some areas being abandond and some with stiff resistance however air supremacy for France and Britain proved to be decisive
26
Suez: Activity at the UN
- Emergency debate called and Americans protest the invasion fervently
- Britain uses its veto to defeat a UN ceasefire resolution
27
Suez: Why were the US so upset?
- The Soviet Union was able to send tanks to Hungary to put down rebellion
- Eisenhower hadn't been properly consulted
- On 5th November USSR notifies Britain that it would intervene militarily
- Effectively makes the cold war run hot
28
Suez: Reasons for British Withdrawal
- Possibility of Soviet intervention
- Strength of opposition domestically
- Fury of Eisenhower
- International Condemnation
-- Reluctance of support from Commonwealth
- Catastrophic fall in British currency reserves by large withdrawals by international investors
29
Suez: Personal Role of Eden
- Underestimated the Western disapproval
- Completely misjudged Eisenhower
- Crisis had an impact on Eden's health
30
Suez: Significance for Britain
- Britain could not carry out foreign policy alone
- Senior members of parliament realised that Britain had to get closer to Europe
31
Macmillan Background
- Fought gallantly in WW1
- Won his seat in 1924
- Published The Middle Way in 1938
- Minister with responsibility for war in North Africa
- Minister for housing 1951-4
- Minister for Defence 1954-5
- Foreign Secretary 1955
- Chancellor 1955-7
-Seen as a good safe set of hands
- Fervent supporter of Suez but admitted to the Cabinet on 3 Jan 1957 that Suez had cost Britain £564 million (Swelling of debts)
32
Macmillan's chancellors
- Peter Thorneycroft 1957-8
- Derick Heathcoat-Amory 1958-60
- Selwyn Lord 1960-2
-- Reginald Maudling 1962-4
33
Budget Politics:
- Budgets were used as short term measures to buy votes
- Before 1959 election Heathcoat Amory cutes taxes at time of high inflation leading to more inflation
- He then has to hike tax and interest rates to control inflation
- By the end of 1964 BoP deficit of over £800 million
34
"Stop-go" economics
- When consumption rose too high, the treasury would put the brakes on by increasing interest rates. When production then declined the government would have to let it "go"
35
Why was British Industrial growth rate low
Major spending on defence, nuclear programme and NHS
36
GDP % growth rate 1951-64
Italy: 5.6%
West Germany: 5.1%
France 4.3%
UK 2.3%
37
% of R&D spent on defence 1963-4
Japan 0.9
Netherlands 1.9
Italy 2.6
West Germany 10.8
UK 34.5
USA 40.6
38
When was "never had so good" speech?
July 1957 - Macmillan
39
Average real weekly wage 1951 - 1964
1951: £8 6 shillings (£8.30)
1964: £18 7 shillings (£18.35)
40
Growth in real wages 1951-64 (average hourly rate)
1951-55 2.2%
1955-60 2.9%
1960-64 4.0%
41
Evidence of rise of Financial Credit
1950-65 sales of private cars 1.5m-5.5m
- More and more foreign holidays and mod-cons
42
Atlee vs Macmillan on housing
- Atlee was proud that they had built 600,000 houses from 1945-51
- From 1951-4 macmillan as housing minister built 300,000 houses per year
- From 1951-64 the conservatives built 1.7m homes with 60% being private dwellings
43
1957 Rent Act
- Abolished rent control
- Put 6 million homes on the market
- However led to poorer standard of housing stock and no gov control on rent
- Helped create conditions for a "property owning democracy"
44
Unemployment figures 1951-1964
1951: 367,000
1956: 298,000
1963: 878,000
1964: 501,000
Fluctuated but from 1958 remained quite high
45
Comprehensive Schools built by conservatives
- Unnaturally the conservatives were pro comprehensive
- Kidbrook School, London 1954
- Sandfields School, Wales. 1958
- Risinghill School, Islington 1960
46
Influential Education Minister throughout this period
Edward Boyle
47
Arguments for comprehensive system:
- Selective education meant undervaluing children who did not meet the standard imposed
- The 11+ was psychologically dubious
- Selection was socially divisive
- The greater share of public money went to the top tier of schools
- The record showed that bright pupils preformed well academically in comprehensives as well
48
Arguments against Comprehensive system
- Loss of alternative options if the local comprehensive was poor
- Wealthy parents could just move house towards better comprehensives - people were now divided by wealth not ability
- Most comprehensive schools "set" their schools so was there a difference really
49
Signs of cross-party consensus (schools)
- From 1950 more comprehensive schools were built by the conservatives than Labour
50
What did the Robbins Report recommend (1963)
- Extension of comprehensive principle into universities
- Expansion of the existing universities
- Emphasis to be given to scientific education
- 12 existing colleges of advanced technology (CATs) to be given university status
- Larger grants to be provided so no student couldn't go due to financial difficulties
51
Change in class 1951-64
- National War effort and common experience of the Blitz and rationing had transcended classes
- Welfare state under Atlee and its acceptance by the Conservatives helped everyone
- The affluence of Britain in the 1950s and 1960s had blurred class distinctions
52
Changes in social mobility (+ Butler quote)
- Consumerism equalised classes
- "We have developed an affluent, open and democratic society, in which the class escalators are continually moving and in which people are divided not by "haves and have nots" but by " haves and have mores" - R. A. Butler 1960
53
Arguments against Conservative social and economic success
- They just used "stop-go" tactics
- Government used budget to buy votes
- Government failed to invest in R&D industrially
- Britain had poor growth statistics
- The government had not made efforts to improve employer-employee relations
- Some moralists attacked the property-owning democracy as well as purchasing on credit as personal debt grew
54
Post WW2 immediate migrant policy
- British nationality act of 1948 gave all Commonwealth citizens right to get British citizenship
- UK government organised appeals in the Caribbean to find workers to fill the NHS
- Textile firms in London and northern England eagerly took on workers from Pakistan and India
- However in every decade up to the 1970s Emigration exceeded Immigration
- Post war immigration remained lower than pre war
55
Main difficulties for newcomers to Britain:
- Immigrants tended to live in poorer urban areas where accommodation was cheaper which led to competition for it
- Where work was scarce those who could not get a job blamed immigrants
- Immigrants were more likely to take work at lower pay than local white workers
- By the late 1950s less than 6% of the population was from non European origin
56
Race Riots 1958-9
Nottingham, Bristol and some parts of London. White youth harassed black residents who retalitated
Notting Hill, London august 1958:
- Mob of 600 white men tried to loot black-owned property, police keep crowds seperate
- Throwing of petrol bombs
- Severe prison sentences on white ringleaders, a number of rioters belonged to the "white defence league"
57
When was the Salmon Report
1958 - findings by Lord Justice Salmon
- Approached the riots from a law and order perspective not as a problem of racism
58
Conclusion from Salmon Report
- Sexual tension as black men went out with white women was a factor
- Anger at the willingness to work for younger wages
- Bitternes at the increased rents
- White "Teddy Boys" using violence as a way of proving themselves
59
Commonwealth Immigration Act 1962
- Placed restrictions on immigrants based on their ethnic origin
- Led to a sudden rush of immigrants before the terms came into effect
- From 1960-62 230,000 Commonwealth citizens entered creating a new peak
60
1957-61 "Youth Subculture"
Conflict between "mods and rockers" from 1964
- Rise of antisocial behaviour and hooliganism
61
Explanations for the rise of the "Youth subculture"
- The growing affluence fed independency
- Pockets of poverty felt alienated
- Young people of the 1960s were the first generation to not have lived through WW2
- Rise of pop music and fashion
- Political scandals set a bad example
62
Status of women
- Despite a growth of women in employment during WW2 most were expected to give up their jobs
- 75% of female workers left work to return to a traditional role at home
- Even under Labour there was no consistent progression, equal pay was not gov policy
- Family was still regarded as a bedrock of society
- However the rise of mod-cons reduced the traditional role
- Tax authorities classified women as dependants
63
1960s Women in employment and education facts
By 1960 1/3 of workforce were women but 2/3 of women worked in low paid secretarial work or teaching
- By 1960s 10% of higher posts in law, civil service or universities were held by women
64
Why was empire dismantled
- The more imperialist conservatives played the main role in dismantling the empire
- India was first in 1947
- Sense that the time of colonialism was over - only exacerbated by the Suez crisis
- Macmillan refereed to the "wind of change" in 1960
- Was mostly peaceful aside from Mau Mau rising in Kenya and southern Rhodesia
65
When was the "wind of change" speech
1960 - Macmillan
66
Southern Rhodesia
- White Rhodesian Front Party wanted independence but what not accept the condition of "majority rule" as they didn't want the natives a say
- The RFP by Ian Smith declared independence in 1965 but was slapped with economic sanctions and regarded a racist breakaway enclave
- In 1980 the leaders accepted Margaret Thatcher;s terms and held democratic elections, changed name Zimbabwe
67
Effect of the dismantling of the empire on britain
- Very little
- Retaining and protecting the empire had become too costly
- The domestic population viewed it as the nature thing to do
68
African Independence Timeline:
- Sudan 1956
- Ghana 1957
- Nigeria 1960
- Somalia 1960
- Tanzania 1961
- Sierra Leone 1961
- Uganda 1962
- Kenya 1963
- Zambia 1964
- Malawi 1964
- (Rhodesia (Unofficial)) 1964
- Gambia 1965
- Botswana 1966
- Lesotho 1966
- Swaziland 1968
- Rhodesia Official 1980
69
What was the Treaty of Rome
- Created the EEC in 1957
- Signed by "The Six"
- Established a common market and customs union
- Adoption of a Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
- Member states were required to levy tariffs against non-member states
70
What was the Common Agricultural Policy
- CAP was designed to end rural poverty via funding from richer areas of the EEC
- The subsidised farmers were provided with a guaranteed price for their produce
- This led to increased food prices and became one of the most controversial parts of the EEC
71
what was the internal political character of the EEC
- Formally an economic organisation
- Germany was keen to re-establish itself
- France was very weary of the new Germany
72
Britain's attitude towards the EEC
- Both 2 parties originally reject the idea of joining the EEC
- In Oct 1962 Gaitskell firmly dismissed idea of joining the EEC
73
First British H-Bomb detonation
1957
74
What was the EFTA?
European Free Trade Association
Set up by Britain in 1959 with Scandinavia and alike
Fails
75
Why did Britain move towards EEC membership 1956-63
- Britain had been of the view that the economic future was with the Commonwealth and the USA
- The failure o Suez cast doubts over the "Special Relationship"
- Still relied on US delivery methods for nukes
- The view of "if you can't beat 'em, join 'em" became prevalent
- In August 1961 Macmillan spoke at length to the House of Commons on why Britain should apply for EEC membership
76
First French Veto 1963
- De Gaulle was concerned about the commonwealth
- Commonwealth rejected an offer to become associate members of the EEC which worried De Gaulle
- De Gaulle and Macmillan could not agree on a joint nuclear arms plan and then Macmillan went to buy Polaris off the US
- De Gaulle wanted to keep the EEC as a counterbalance to the US and saw Britain in US camp
- IT was seen as being very humiliating for Britain
- Britain demanded exemptions from CAP including exemptions on NZ lamb
77
Vassall Inquiry
1963
- Comes out civil servant John Vassall had been caught spying for the USSR
- Rumours of a cover-up
78
Kim Philby
Jan 1963
- Transpires that Phhilby had for decades been running information to Moscow and had an entire spy network in the foreign office
- Flees to Moscow where he remained until his death in 1988
79
Argyll divorce case
1963
Duke of Argyll sues his wife for divorce on grounds of adultery
- Argyll provides a list of men and photos alleging that these men had group sex with his wife
- 2 government ministers are among the accused
80
Profumo Affair 1963
- Minister for war, John Profumo, had an affair with Christine Keeler whilst she was seeing soviet agent Ivanov
- In March 1963 Profumo declared to the house that there was no affair and Macmillan backed him
- Profumo then admitted he had lied 3 month later and resigned
- Dr Stephan Ward had been closely linked to many other conservative MPs and this harmed their rep.
- Dr Ward killed himself
- Impact of the affair, Macmillan resigns citing ill health
81
Succession of Macmillan 1963
- Most people thought it would be a straight fight between Butler and Lord Hailsham
- However in 1963 despite being in a strong position Butler did not push his leadership and Macmillan had disliked Butler
- To many peoples suprise a late runner, Lord Home, entered the race. He had to renounce his peerage to run as did Lord Hailsham. Ironically, the only way it was possible to give up a title was through the Peerage Act passed in 1963 and pushed by Tony Benn
- Macmillan moved his support away from Hailsham and towards Home, he had always hoped to block Butler
- Some conservatives e.g. Enoch Powell and Iain Mcleod declared they would not serve under Home as they would give Conservatism the wrong image
- Home made it mainly through the work of "old boys" Etonian network
82
Internal Labour disputes up to 1959
- The Bevanites (who were more radical than Bevan) wanted a larger role of TUs
- Many of the left were unilateralists
- Many from the CND moment were secretly Soviet sympathisers
- Gaitskell beat Bevan in the 1955 leadership election and tried to steer the party towards the centre
83
1959 Election: Conservatives
13,749,830 / 365 / 48.4%
84
1959 Election: Labour
12,215,538 / 258 / 43.8%
85
1959 Election: Liberal
1,638,571 / 6 / 5.9%
86
1959 Election: Other
255,302 / 1 / 0.9%
87
1959 General Election:
- The election was first since Suez so voters had the opportunity to punish Tories
- Macmillan was successful in his "never had it so good" idea
- Labour government hastily planned an increase in state pension without increasing tax. This seemed to be completely irresponsible
88
Reasons for Labour Defeat in 1959
- Disagreements over party identity
- Divisions over how far the party should push for socialist policy such as nationalisation
- Split over unilateralism
- Uncertainty over EEC membership
- In the election Labour were outmanoeuvred by the Conservatives who claimed to be leading Britain to prosperity
- Labour's silly pension plan
89
Labour's reaction to 1959 defeat
- Gaitskell accused the left of political sabotage
- Left attacked Gaitskell over dropping nationalism and going against party principle
- Some of the right defended Gaitskell and formed the CDS (Campaign for Democratic Socialism), they would eventually form the SDP
- The CDS argued that it was undemocratic to use union influence
90
1960 Labour Party Conference
- Unilateralists use the block vote of trade unions to force unilateralism onto the party
- Gaitskell accuses the left as being Soviet sympathisers and states that unilateralism was political suicide
- Got unilateralism removed in 1961
91
Conservative Majority after 1959 election
100
92
Leader of TGWU who was opposed to Hugh Gaitskell
Frank Cousins
93
Clause in the Labour Manifesto that promised nationalisation
Clause IV
94
What was the night of the long knives
In 1962 macmillan sacked 1/3 of cabinet
95
What was the Clean Air Act
1956 - Aimed to prevent the smog of the early 1950s
96
The Housing Acts and Factories Acts
Housing (1957 and 1961) and Factories (1959 and 1961) were attempts at improving living and working conditions for the people of Britain
97
What was the Homicide Act
1957 - restricted the use of the death penalty
98
The Wolfenden Commission
1957
Recommended the decriminalisation of homosexual relationships
99
What was the post war "baby boom"?
Population increased by 5% from 1951 to 1961
100
What was employment levels at in 1955?
Fewer than 1% of the workforce was unemployed. Full employment
101
Growth of service industry
By 1960 20% of the population were working in service industry like marketing, sales or finance
102
1955 Tax cuts
Butler unveils £134 million in tax cuts
103
Macmillan cabinet divisions over economic policy
Macmillan and Macleod were more moderate in their economic approach whilst Peter Thorneycroft wanted to adopt a more right wing monetarist economic policy
- Thorneycroft's proposal was rejected so he resigns in 1958
- In 1959 Macmillan unveils a £370 million tax cut and they win the election by a landslide
104
When does Britain apply to IMF for a loan
1961
105
What was the Beeching Report?
1963, recommends closure of 30% of the rail network
- Reduction of lines from 13,000 to 9,000 miles
106
2 Economic bodies set up by Selwyn Lloyd 1962-1964
- National Economic Development Council (NEDC) to co-ordinate long-term economic planning. Had experts on it
- National Incomes Commission (NIC) in 1962 to monitor prices and wages
107
Economic condition 1961- 1964
- Economic growth springs from 4 to 6% from 1963 to '64
- Rise of exports of 10% but imports rise by 20%
108
Success of Churchill government
- Ensured stability by continuing post war consensus
- Churchill was a stabilising figure
109
New towns built by Conservatives such as
Harlow, Kirkby
110
TV and Car ownership increase 1957-59
32% / 25%
111
When was ITV launched
1955 - led to a boom in advertising industry
112
1957-63 Road construction
1200 miles of new or upgraded roads
First motorways: Preston Bypass and M1
113
Stats on holidays
- 60,000 people holidayed each year in late 1950s at Butlins
- However less than 2% of people went on foreign holidays each year
114
In 1951 what % of working class voted labour
65%
115
In 1951 what % of people voted Conservative
80%
116
Rise of Satirical Content
- private eye founded in 1961
- that was the week that was began in 1962
- Play "Don't look back in anger" 1956 attacked the establishment
117
Average age of women for marriage and % of women married
- Average age of marriage was 21
- 75% of women were married
118
When did teachers and civil servants get equal pay
Teachers - 1952
Civil Servants 1954
119
Washing Machine and Fridge ownership increase 1957-59
Washing Machine: 54%
Fridge: 58%
120
Why was there a rise of Youth Culture:
- Boys were no longer conscripted into National Service from 1960
- Girls had more time due to mod-cons
- 1959 10% of population were teenagers
121
What were Rockers
- Listened to rock n roll, Presley
- wore leather and heavy motorcycles
122
What were rockers
- listened to pop
- wore smart suits
rode scooters
123
When were the notorious mods and rockers clashes?
1964 - Margate, Clacton, Brighton
124
Examples of changing taboos
- Sapphire (1959) was a TV crime thriller than included lots of sex and violence
- A clockwork Orange (1962) was a novel by Anthony Burgess that portrayed the reality of gang violence
- Victim (1961) was the first film to have the word "homosexual"
- Lady Chatterley's Lover 1962 court case, 2 million copies sold afterwards
125
Who was Mary Whitehouse
TV and figure in the press who launches a crusade against the "immorality and depravity" of new culture
126
What was the Schuman Plan (1960)
Set out proposals in 1950 for a European Coal and Seel Community
127
How many British Troops fought in Korea (1950-53)
90,000, with 1000 dying
128
Thorneycroft described Britain as what during the missile crisis
bystanders
129
Bevin quote on Nuclear Deterrent
"We've got to have this thing over here whatever it costs. We've got to have the bloody Union Jack on top of it"
130
US being opps over Suez
- Blocks British appeal to the IMF for a loan
- refuses to provide oil to compensate for Saudi oil embargo
131
What was the UKAEA
UK Atomic Energy Authority. Established in 1954
- By 1962 a reactor at Dounreay was producing power domestically by nuclear
132
Growth of international TV
- Launch of Telstar in 1962 by the US made it possible
- The Goonhilly Satellite station in Cornwall contributed with over 60 dishes being the largest satellite station in the world
133
