2 Flashcards
(41 cards)
Psychodynamic theories
mportance of a strong id
o Child development affects later behaviour
▪ Fixations linked to specific events
▪ Little Hans. Castration anxiety, oedipal complex.
o Importance of “insight”. Making links is everything. This is the cure ▪ Does this really matter? And is the “trauma” even relevant?
limits of psychodynamic theory
Not falsifiable (unempirical)
▪ Biased methods and biased populations
* Free association (not super meaningful), recollections of childhood,
reports of dreams
* His only sample was the adults that were going to his therapy, but his
theories were supposed to be generalizable ▪ Biased views (male superiority, penis envy)
* In general, he really overgeneralized
Contributions to the field of psychodynamics theories
Focus on the mother-infant relationship led to attachment theories
▪ Unconscious thoughts and motives underlie prejudice/stereotyping
Behavioral theories
Emphasize how behaviours are acquired through a gradual and continuous process of learning. The individual plays a more passive role, directed by the environment.
▪ We have learned maladaptive behaviours. Equally, we can unlearn them.
▪ Skinner (1904-1990), Watson (1878-1958), Pavlov (1849-1936)
▪ Watson believed that all maladaptive behaviour was purely learned (extreme).
Was a very controlling parent.
behavioral theories, classical conditioning
Learning through associations
▪ Unconditioned stimulus (biologically salient) paired with neutral stimulus.
Unconditioned response turns into conditioned response to conditioned
stimulus.
▪ Pavlov’s dogs. Sound (NS) + food (US) = saliva (CR)
▪ Watson’s Little Albert. Sound (US) + white rabbit (NS) = fear (CR)
▪ This could provide a better explanation of the case of Little Hans (he saw a horse
collapse in the street)
▪ Accounts for the development of strong emotions in response to certain
objects. Treatment: systematic desensitization
behavioral theories, operant conditioning
Specific consequences are associated with voluntary behaviour. Rewards increase it, punishment decreases it
▪ Four types:
- Positive reinforcement: add something desirable
- Positive punishment: add something unpleasant
- Negative reinforcement: remove something unpleasant
- Negative punishment: remove something desirable
▪ They can be either intermittent or continuous * Intermittent works best
▪ We can use these principles to understand why unhealthy behaviours are maintained, plus how to modify social behaviours - Ex: addiction
- Ex: avoidance is an example of negative reinforcement. Unhelpful long
term - Ex: children’s aggressive behaviour is often increased by attention
(positive reinforcement). Time outs (negative punishment) can diminish
aggressive behaviour
Mowrers 2 factor phobia theory
Step 1: classical conditioning establishes the aversive response to a previously neutral stimulus (ex: a dog bite)
▪ Step 2: person avoids the stimulus to prevent feeling afraid (negative reinforcement), which blocks extinction of the fear.
* It’s important to be exposed to a fear in moderation to get better
cognitive theories
Perception (remembering, thinking, etc.) that causes dysfunctional behaviour (not
necessarily the “reality” of the event)
o Cycle: thoughts create feelings, feelings create behaviour, behaviour reinforces thoughts
Albert Ellis theory of rational emotive behavioral theory
Associations between events and beliefs
▪ Ex: irrational beliefs. “Shoulds” and “musts” are strong words. Create
maladaptive behaviour. Too black and white. No room for failure
▪ Pushed clients to look for evidence for their thoughts, to question familiar
automatic beliefs
Aaron Becks Cognitive theory and therapy
Cognitive triad. Negative views about the world, the future, and the self ▪ Dysfunctional schemas
* Representations which affect our view of the future ▪ Information processing biases
* How we pay attention to/interpret/recall information ▪ Automatic thoughts
* Thoughts about failure and loss (common in depression)
* Thoughts about danger and uncertainty (common in anxiety) ▪ Also acknowledged the role of the individual
3rd Wave CBT
Treatment based on mindfulness. Acknowledges the role of cognition and
behaviours in psychological disorders
* Those who are low in mindfulness (being grounded in the here and now) are at greater risk for psychological disorders.
* Learn to disengage from the thought
▪ Emphasizes the role of attention in distress (attention can exacerbate
maladaptive thoughts)
* Anxiety about maladaptive thoughts can fuel them
Humanistic and Existential theories
Behaviour is determined not just by experience, but our choices. o Importance of the dignity of the client, fostering self-actualization
Abraham Maslow theory of self actualization
Inspired by the indigenous Siksika (Blackfoot) way of life. They were very integrated into their communities, felt purpose.
▪ Hierarchy of needs: when fully satisfied, result is the actualization of the person’s potential
▪ Self-actualized individuals are grounded in reality (comfortable with it), problem-centered (not ego-centered),
▪ Abnormal/dysfunctional behaviour results from failure to attain the necessary self-esteem for self-actualization
* Not necessarily clinical diagnoses.
Carl Rogers Person centered theory
Permissive “growth promoting” climate
▪ Being present in the relationship. Focus on the client’s immediate experience
(contrary to Freud)
* Therapists are not the sole authority on their client’s life
▪ Maladaptive behaviour is because you are “stuck”. You are not trusting your experiences.
Roll May and Viktor Frankl Extentialist theories
▪ Development of meaning and responsibility for one’s actions is critical. ▪ Issues stem from failure to take responsibility and find meaning
* Angst = anxiety and distress
▪ Therapy focuses on proactivity
▪ The “bad cops”. Would confront their clients.
* Good for people with a “midlife crisis” type issue
theory of genes
searching for concordance between family members (behavioural genetics)
▪ Ex: does ADHD run in the family
▪ Research to determine the separate effects of genetics and environment:
* Adoption studies:
o Rates of disorder in biological vs adoptive parents o Cross fostering (doesn’t happen as much now)
* Twin studies
o Monozygotic (MZ) twins have 100% same genes o Dizygotic (DZ) twins have 50% same genes
neurotransmitter theories
Disturbances in neurotransmitters can result in abnormal behaviour
* Transmitter can be under/overproduced in the synapse
* Receptors can be under/overproduced on the dendrites
* Transmitter-deactivating substance can be under/overproduced in the
synapse
* Re-uptake process can be too fast/slow
▪ Complex interactions between the roles of dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
* Ex: it’s oversimplified to say that depression is just a lack of serotonin
* Neurotransmitters have different concentrations
* Dopamine: pleasure seeking
* Serotonin: constraint, exercise, sleep
Peripheral nervous system theory
SNS (muscles)
▪ ANS (automatic processes. Organs, etc.)
* Sympathetic: fight or flight (stress!)
* Parasympathetic: rest and digest (shut down)
▪ Overactive/underactive parasympathetic or sympathetic responses are tied to certain psychological disorders
* Too much sympathetic responses: anxiety (PTSD), more acquisition of phobias
* Can be due to genetics or early experiences
* The ANS can be a factor in individual differences. Some people are just
born more resistant.
Theory of a Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis
Activated in response to stress. Releases cortisol (via CRH and ACTH)
▪ Interacts in a feedback loop
▪ Studied in stress-related disorders. Can have an abnormal reaction to stress
integrative theories, diathesis stress
Mental disorders = predisposition (biological or psychological (ex: history of abuse, social factors)) + stress (can happen in early infancy
▪ A predisposition will not produce a disorder without a trigger. A trigger will not always produce a disorder.
▪ Some people will be highly sensitive to their environment (dandelion vs orchid)
▪ Some people are more resilient/less reactive
* Temperament-dependent (regulation of emotions)
integrative theories, Biopsychosocial model
Biological, social, and psychological factors all contribute to mental health * Very similar to the diathesis stress perspective
▪ Brain plasticity. More emphasis on the person’s response:
▪ Differential susceptibility: behaviour is predicted by a combination of genetic/environmental factors
perfect classification and diagnostic system
Classification based on symptoms (clusters) ▪ Clear etiology (cause)
▪ Strong prognosis (future development)
▪ Know the response to treatment
▪ No overlap between them
▪ Perfect cure
Strong diagnostic systems have
Inter-rater reliability (agreement)
* We want multiple opinions to converge!
* Ex: Beck et al. (1962): 4 psychiatrists interviewed 153 new inpatients.
Low IRR: 54%.
o Could be due to different interview techniques, different
focuses, but also due to inadequate diagnostic criteria (old
DSM). Now the DSM is better
* Ex: if someone believes the patient is lying, they are more likely to turn
to a different set of diagnoses.
Validity of a strong diagnostic system, concurrent validity
presence of non- symptoms attributes Common observations/facts. Well known “red flags” o Ex: for schizophrenia, this is often correlated with
underachievement in school and social isolation
