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✅2: eukaryotic Flashcards

1
Q

What is the nucleus

A

Contains DNA providing protein synthesis

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2
Q

What is the nucleolus

A

Contains DNA and information of RNA for constructing ribosomes

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3
Q

What are ribosomes

A

Site of protein synthesis

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4
Q

What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Attached ribosomes synthesise proteins and the ER transports proteins to the Golgi body

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5
Q

What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

Synthesis of lipids and steroids

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6
Q

What is the mitochondria

A

Site of the reactions of aerobic respiration and where ATP is made

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7
Q

What are centrioles

A

Guide the formation of spindle fibres during mitosis and meiosis

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8
Q

What are lysosomes

A

Contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest old organelles and bacteria etc

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9
Q

What is the Golgi apparatus

A

Modified and packages proteins synthesised in the cell

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10
Q

What is the cell wall

A

Supports plant cells and prevents them bursting when turgid

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11
Q

What is the chloroplast

A

Site of the reactions of photosynthesis, in which carbon dioxide and water are converted to carbohydrates

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12
Q

What is a vacuole

A

In plant cells, contains cell sap which is an aqueous solution of many different compounds

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13
Q

What is a tonoplast

A

the cell membrane surrounding the vacuole, which controls what enters and leaves it

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14
Q

Where are eukaryotic cells found

A

Animals, plants and fungi

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15
Q

What is gram positive and gram negative

A

When stained with gram stain, positive bacteria takes up the stain and looks our pole. Negative doesn’t. Positive has thick outer layer of peptidoglycan, which absorbs the stain. In negative, the cell wall lies between the two cell membranes. The outer membrane protects bacteria from several antibiotics

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16
Q

How do proteins end up on rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

A

Proteins which are exported from a cell (extra cellular enzymes) are made on ribosomes attached to rER. Amino acids are strung together into a long chain on ribosome and joined together by peptide bonds. As chain forms, fed through the membrane of endoplasmic reticulum so protein ends up inside the space between the endoplasmic reticulum membrane.

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17
Q

What happens to the protein on rER.

A

Part of the cisternum, with the proteins in it, break off to form a membrane bound vesicles. The moves towards the Golgi apparatus. Vesicle fuses to the outer convex face of the Golgi apparatus.

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18
Q

What happens at the Golgi apparatus after the vesicles fuse?

A

Protein molecules are modified by having carbohydrate groups added to them to produce apparatus.

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19
Q

Where do the vesicles travel too after they break off the face of the Golgi apparatus

A

Travel to the cell surface membrane and their content (proteins) and depositors outside the cell

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20
Q

How do you observe cells?

A

Microscopes

Light and electron

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21
Q

What is a light microscope?

A

Thinly sliced material is placed on a stage of a light microscope. And illuminated from underneath. Objective lens produced a magnified and inverted image, which eyepiece lens focuses at the eye.
Total magnification of 100

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22
Q

what is bad about the light microscope?

A

preservation and staining the tissue can produce artifacts in the tissues being observed. most of the species are dead and stained. limited resolution and magnification.

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23
Q

what kind of dye can you use for light Microscopes?

A

haematoxylin- purple, blue or brown.
methylene blue- blue
acetocarmine- stains the chromosomes dividing
iondine- blue-black

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24
Q

what is the electron microscope|?

A

use beams of electrons to form an image. electrons are scattered by the specimen. electrons effectively behave like light waves. 10000 x better than a light microscope.

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25
what are the two types of electron micrographs?
transmission electron micrographs which are 2D images like those on a light microscope. scanning electron micrographs have a lower magnification, but are 3D.
26
advantages of electron microscopes
huge power of magnification and resolution. many details in the cell structure.
27
disadvantages of electron microscopes
all specimens are looked at in a vacuum, the air would scatter the electrons and make the image look fuzzy. therefore they cannot be alive. undergo several treatments that is likely to result in artefacts. extremely expensive. large, and needs constant temperature and pressure.
28
what are the functions of membranes?
forms boundary to the cell, controls what passes in and out. allows fluids either side to pass in or out. make it possible for the cell to have the right conditions. many chemical processes happen on the cell membrane. eg, respiration takes place on the mitochondrial membrane. also needs to be flexible.
29
what is the phospholipid bilayer?
lipids in the membrane which are polar lipids. one end are joined to a polar group. many polar lipids in the membrane are phospholipids with a phosphate group attached to them, and with water or aq solutions on each side , pointing to the water, while hydrophobic tails stay protected inside the membrane. called a unit membrane.
30
what are membrane proteins?
proteins on the membrane. the more unsaturated fatty acids are, the more fluid the membrane. many proteins have a hydrophobic part, which is buried in the lipid bilayer,a d a hydrophilic part. some proteins penetrate the whole way through the membrane.
31
what are the functions of the membrane proteins?
help substances move across the membrane. proteins can form pores and channels, some are permanent or temporary, which allow specific molecules through. can be opened or shut depending on the conditions in the cell.
32
what are gated channels?
proteins in the cell membrane structure which allow molecules through. opened or shut depending on the conditions. some of the protein pores are active carrier systems using energy to move molecules.
33
what is the typical animal cell?
cell surface membrane, jelly like cytoplasm, with a nucleus. these 2 together form the protoplasm. cytoplasm contains whats needed for day to day living. nucleus is the survival of the cell, with the genetic make up.
34
what are the membranes in an animal cell?
internal (intracellular) membranes. they localize enzyme in reaction pathways.
35
how large is the nucleus?
largest organelle in the cell. 1-20um.
36
how can the nucleus be seen?
light microscope and the electron microscope. spherical in shape and surrounded by a double nuclear membrane which contains pores and holes.
37
how do chemicals pass in and out of the nucleus?
through the pores in the nuclear membrane. so they can control events happening in the cytoplasm.
38
where is the DNA in the nucleus?
when cell isnt actively dividing, DNA is bonded to the protein CHROMATIN, which looks like tiny granules. in the nucleus there is also at least one nucleolus, which is an extra-dense aread of almost pure DNA and protein. nucleolus is involved in production of ribsomes.
39
what does the mitochondria mean?
"thread granule". described as tiny rod-like structures.
40
what is the function of mitochondria?
powerhouse of the cell. complicated biochemical reactions for respiration and ATP production. the number of mitochrondria in the cell tells you how much energy it needs. if a lot of energy is needed, there are more mitochrondrias in the cell.
41
what is the cristae?
mitochondria have an internal arrangement adapted for its function. the inner membrane is folded to form a cristae. which has a very big surface area surrounded by the fluid matrix.
42
what are centrioles?
usually a pair of centrioles near the nucleus. each centriole of made up of 9 bundles and is about 0.5 um long. they are involved in cell division, as when the cell divides, the centrioles pull apart to form a spindle of micro-tubules that are involved in the movement of chromosomes.
43
what is the cytoskeleton?
3D web like structure that fills the cytoplasm. it is made up of micro filaments, which are protein fibres and microtubules
44
what are microtubules?
tiny protein tubes, found both singly and in bundles throughout the cytoplasm. consist mainly of globular protein tubulin. gives the cytoplasm structure and keeps organelles in place.
45
what are vacuoles?
not a permanent feature in animal cells. membrane lined enclosures are formed and lost when needed. make food vacuoles around the prey they engulf. white blood cells in higher animals form simple vacuoles around engulfed pathogens.
46
what are contractile vacuoles?
live in fresh water, this is important. allows the water content of the cytoplasm to be controlled.
47
what are 80S ribosomes?
made from ribosomal RNA in eukaryotic cells, it comes in the form of 80S. also contain another type of ribosome: 70S, in the mitochondria and in the chloroplasts. usually found in prokaryotic.
48
what is rough endoplasmic reticulum?
covered with granules which are 80S ribosomes. has large surface area for synthesis of all these proteins, and it stores and transports them both within the cell and out. cells secrete materials.
49
what is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
makes proteins, and rER isolates and transports these proteins once they have been made. some proteins, such as digestive enzymes and hormones, are secreted without interfering with the cells activities. example of exocytosis.
50
what is smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
not covered in ribosomes. also involved in the synthesis and transport, but in the case of steroids and lipids. eg, lots of sER is found in the testes.
51
how can you see the golgi apparatus?
under a light microscope, the golgi apparatus looks like a rather dense area of the cytoplasm. in an electron microscope, it is made up of stacks of parallel, flattened membrane pockets called cisternae, formed by vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum fusing together.
52
how does the golgi apparatus and the rER link?
proteins are brought to the golgi apparatus in vesicles that have pinched off from the rER, where they were made. the vesicles fuse with the membranes sacs of the golgi apparatus and the proteins enter the golgi sacks. they are modified in various ways.
53
What is the Golgi apparatus involved in?
Carbohydrates are added to some proteins to form glycoproteins such as mucus. The Golgi Apparatus also seems to be involved in producing materials for plant and fungal cell walls and insect cuticles. May be enclosed in vesicles to form an organelle called LYSOSOME.
54
How might enzymes be transported through the Golgi apparatus?
Go through Golgi apparatus and then in vesicles to the cell surface membrane where vesicles fuse with the membrane to release extra cellular digestive enzymes.
55
What are lysosomes?
Food taken into the cell must be broke down into simple chemicals that can be used. Organelles in the cells of your body that are worn out need to be destroyed. These jobs are the function of the lysosomes. Word lysis is break down.
56
how are plant cells different to animal cells?
permanent vacuoles, chloroplasts.
57
what is the plant cell wall for?
each cell is bound to a cell wall, which holds its shape. the actual cell is a jelly like balloon but its inside a shoe box. for strength and support. usually free permeable to everything that is dissolved in water, so it doesn't act as a barrier for substances getting into the cell.
58
what is the plant cell wall made of?
insoluble cellulose.
59
what does suberin and lignin do to the plant cell wall?
the cell wall can be impregnated with suberin in cork tissues or with lignin to produce wood. these compounds affect the permeability of the cell wall so that water and dissolved substance cannot pass trough it.
60
why is the plant cell wall made out of layers?
walls are very flexible.
61
what is the middle lamella?
the first layer in a plant cell wall, it forms when a plant cell divides into 2 new cells. made out of pectin, a polysaccharide that acts like glue and holds the cell walls together.
62
why is pectin good for glue in a cell wall
has lots of negatively charged carboxyl groups and these combine with positive calcium ions to form calcium pectate. this binds to the cellulose microfibrils and matix build up on either side of the middle lamella.
63
what are primary cell walls?
the walls made of middle lamella and joined by pectin and cellulose microfibrils all orientated in a similar direction. very flexible.
64
what is the secondary cell wall in plant cell wall?
builds up with the cellulose microfibrils laid densely at different angles to each other. this makes the composite material much more rigid. hemicellulose hardens it even more.
65
what are plant fibres?
long cells with cellulose cell walls that have been more heavily lignified. used for clothing and paper and ropes.
66
what is the plasmodesmata for?
intercellular exchanges take place through special cytoplasmic bridges between cells called plasmodesmata.
67
what is the symplast?
the plasmodesmata appears to be produced a the cells divide. threads of cytoplasm remain between the cells and these threads pass through gaps in the new cell. signalling substances can pass from one cell to another through the cytoplasm. this is the symplast.
68
what is the permanent vacuole in plant cells?
any fluid filled space inside the cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane.
69
why is the vacuole so important to non- woody cells?
vacuole can occupy 80% of the volume of a plant cell.
70
what is a tonoplast?
they are the surrounding specialise membrane of the vacuole. it has many different protein channels and carrier systems in it.
71
what is the vacuole filled with in plant cells?
filled with cell sap.
72
what is cell sap?
solution of various substances in water.
73
what doe the cell sap do?
causes water to move into the cell by osmosis, and as a result, the cytoplasm is kept pressed against the cell wall. this keeps the cell turgid/swollen. due to the pressure.
74
what uses other than the cell sap use are vacuoles used for?
storage of number of different substances. many store pigments. if heated, the characteristic of the membrane will change so the pigment leaks out more rapidly. store proteins in the cell. can also store waste products and other chemicals.
75
why are chloroplasts important to plants?
make their own food.
76
which parts of the plant photosynthesise?
areas which are green that contain chloroplasts.
77
what are some clear similarities between chloroplast and mitochondria?
``` large organelles contain own DNA surrounded by other membrane enormously founded inner membrane thought o have been free living prokaryotic organisms that were engulfed by and became other cells 200 million years ago. ```
78
what are some clear differences between chloroplasts and mitochondria?
chloroplast are the sight of photosynthesis, contain chlorophyll, and are formed from a type of unspecialised plant "stem cell" known as leucoplast
79
what are amyloplasts?
another specialised plant organelle that are developed from leuoplasts. colourless and store amylopectin. this can be converted into glucose and used to provide energy when cell needs it. found in large numbers in areas of the plant which store starch.
80
what are tissues?
group of similar cells that all develop from the same kind of cell.
81
what are the four main tissue types in the human body?
epithelial tissue connective tissue muscle tissue nervous tissue
82
what is squarmous epithelium?
a type of epithelial cell. found in lining the surfaces of blood vessels, and forms walls of capillaries and lining of alveoli.
83
what are cuboidal and columnar cells?
cells which line other tubes in the body.
84
what does ciliated epithelial cells contain?
goblet cells that produce mucus.
85
what does ciliated epithelial cells do?
form the surface of tubes in the gas exchange system and in the oviducts. the regular waving of the cilia form side to side moves materials along inside the tubes.
86
what are organs
structure made up of several different tissues grouped into a structure so that they can work effectively together to carry out a function.
87
what is a system
when organs work together as an organ system to carry out large scale functions in the body.

Biology (21 decks)

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