2025 Anatomy Exam 1 Flashcards

Question

Epithelial Tissue Cells

Answer 1

Squamous cells Thin, flat cells / “squished” nuclei Cuboidal cells Cube-shaped cells / centered, round nucleus Columnar cells Longer than they are wide / nucleus near the base Transitional cells Mixture of cells / nuclei appear to be scattered

Answer 2

Consists of very delicate cells Location Lining body cavities, the heart, the blood vessels Function Reduces friction Absorbs and secretes material

Answer 3

Location Surface of skin Lines mouth, esophagus, anus, vagina Function Protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemicals

Answer 4

Location Thyroid gland, ducts, kidney tubules Function Secretion, absorption Very limited protection

Answer 5

This type of cells is rare Location Ducts of sweat glands Function Secretion, absorption

Answer 6

Location Lining stomach, intestines, gallbladder, uterine tubes, and collecting ducts of the kidneys Function Secretion, absorption, protection

Answer 7

Location Pharynx, epiglottis, anus, mammary glands, salivary glands, and urethra Function Protection

Answer 8

Nuclei situated at different levels Location Nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi Function Protection, secretion

Answer 9

Consists of many layers Consists of a combination of cuboidal and “oddly” shaped cells Location Urinary bladder, renal pelvis, and ureters Function Ability to stretch extensively

Answer 10

Many epithelia contain gland cells Glands are classified based on: Type of secretion released Structure of the gland Mode of secretion Types of glands Exocrine Secretions travel through ducts to the epithelial surface Categories Serous glands: secrete watery fluids rich in enzymes Mucous glands: secrete glycoproteins (mucins) that absorb water to produce mucus Mixed exocrine glands: contain both serous and mucous secretions Endocrine Secretions enter the blood or lymph Categories Release their secretions by exocytosis Secretions are called hormones

Answer 11

Unicellular Secrete mucins... 2 kinds Goblet Found among columnar epithelium of small and large intestines Mucous Found among pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium of the trachea Multicellular Secrete mucins Produces secretory sheets Produce exocrine secretions Consists of a portion that produces the secretion Consists of a portion that carries the secretion to the epithelial surface Produce endocrine secretions

Answer 12

All connective tissues have three main components Specialized cells Extracellular protein fibers Matrix The matrix is the collective term for the extracellular component of any connective tissue that is made of protein fibers and the ground substance Functions of Connective Tissue Establishing the structural framework of the body Transporting fluid and dissolved materials Protecting organs Supporting, surrounding, and connecting other tissues Storing energy Defending the body from microorganisms

Answer 13

Connective tissue proper Has a matrix of fibers (loose fibers and dense fibers) Fluid connective tissue Has a matrix of liquid (blood and lymph) Supporting connective tissue Has a matrix consisting of a gel or a solid (cartilage and bone)

Answer 14

Two classes of connective tissue proper cells Fixed cells Mesenchymal cells Fibroblasts Fibrocytes Fixed macrophages Adipocytes Melanocytes Wandering cells

Answer 15

Fixed cells Wandering cells Free macrophages (monocytes) Mast cells Lymphocytes Neutrophils Eosinophils

Answer 16

Three types of fibers associated with connective tissue Collagen fibers Reticular fibers Elastic fibers

Answer 17

Loose fibers Areolar tissue Adipose tissue Reticular tissue Dense fibers Dense regular Dense irregular Elastic

Answer 18

Acts a flexible, cushion connecting different organs and tissues surrounding them with a loose network of loosely arranged collagen and elastic fibers

Answer 19

Location Hypodermis Buttocks, surrounds organs Function Cushion Insulation Matrix Fibers

Answer 20

Location Liver, spleen, kidney, lymph nodes, tonsils, appendix, bone marrow Function Supporting framework Matrix Fibers

Answer 21

Location Tendons, aponeuroses, ligaments, elastic tissue Function Tendons: connect muscle to bone Aponeuroses: connect muscle to muscle or covers entire muscle Ligaments: connect bone to bone Elastic: stabilizes the vertebrae Matrix Fibers

Answer 22

Location Nerve and muscle sheaths Function Provides strength Matrix Fibers

Answer 23

Location: circulatory system Erythrocytes Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide Leukocytes Fight infections Platelets Blood clotting Matrix Liquid (plasma)

Answer 24

Lymph Location Lymphatic system Lymphocytes Develop into T cells and B cells (for example) Function Involved with the immune system

Answer 25

Provide a strong framework that supports rest of body Cartilage Gel matrix made of chondroitin sulfate Cells reside in lacunae Bone Solid matrix made of calcium phosphate Cells reside in lacunae

Answer 26

Types of Cartilage: Hyaline cartilage Location Connection between ribs and sternum Connection within the joints of the elbow and knee Tracheal cartilage rings Function Flexible support Reduces friction Matrix Gel Elastic cartilage Location Auricle of the ear Epiglottis Auditory tube Function Flexible support Matrix Gel Fibrous cartilage Location Pads within the knee joints Pads between the spinal vertebrae Pubic symphysis Function Resists compression Absorbs shock Matrix Gel

Answer 27

Location Skeletal system Function Support and strength Matrix Solid (lamellae) Made of osteons Osteons consist of: Central canal Osteocytes Lacunae Canaliculi Matrix of lamellae

Answer 28

Epithelia and connective tissue combine to form membranes Each membrane consists of: Sheet of epithelial cells An underlying connective tissue Four types of membranes Mucous Serous Cutaneous Synovial

Answer 29

Line digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts Form a barrier that resists pathogen entry Keep the epithelial surfaces moist The connection of the epithelium with underlying tissue is called lamina propria Provide support for blood vessels and nerves

Answer 30

Line the body cavities Consist of a parietal and a visceral layer Three types of serous membranes Pleura: lines the lungs Peritoneum: lines the peritoneal cavity Pericardium: lines the heart

Answer 31

Makes up the skin Consists of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Thick and waterproof

Answer 32

Lines the joint cavities Produces synovial fluid that reduces friction within the joints Different than the other membranes No basal lamina or reticular lamina Has gaps between cells Cells are derived from macrophages and fibroblasts

Answer 33

Connective tissue creates the internal framework of the body Layers of connective tissue connect organs with the rest of the body Layers of connective tissue are called fascia Superficial fascia Deep fascia Subserous fascia

Answer 34

Have the ability to contract and relax Three types of muscle cells Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle Cells are different than “typical” cells Cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm Plasmalemma is called a sarcolemma

Answer 35

Sometimes referred to as skeletal muscle fibers Multinucleated: Nuclei lie just under the sarcolemma Incapable of cell reproduction Myosatellite cells can reproduce and therefore muscle repair is possible Have a striped appearance under the microscope Voluntarily moves the skeleton

Answer 36

Found: Base of hair follicles, in the walls of blood vessels, lining the urinary bladder, within respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and reproductive tracts Is capable of cell reproduction Has tapered ends Nonstriated Involuntary contraction

Answer 37

Found only associated with the heart Each cell has just one nucleus Cells connected by intercalated discs Pulsating contractions Also called striated involuntary muscle

Answer 38

Neural Tissue Specialized to conduct electrical signals through the body Two types of neural cells Neurons are the cells that actually transmit the impulse Neuroglia are the supporting cells of the neural tissue; these cells protect the neurons Longest cells in the body Incapable of cell reproduction Consists of: Soma, axon, dendrite

Answer 39

5 Layers Protection – Against microbes, chemicals, and UV radiation Water resistant – Keratin in the external layer of the epidermis function. Controls skin permeability. Synthesizes vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) Sensory receptors present for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain, particularly the latter two.

Answer 40

Most external/superficial layer of skin Composed of flattened keratin filled cells – keratinization Keratinocytes take 15-30 days to travel from the basal layer to the stratum corneum Technically composed of dead cells (keratinocytes)

Answer 41

Only seen in thick skin Superficial to the stratum granulosum but deep to the stratum corneum Appears as a clear or glassy layer – luciderm means clear layer Have no nucleus, the cells are converting to almost all keratin protein

Answer 42

Superficial to the stratum spinosum and deep to the stratum luciderm Most superficial layer of the skin that still contain a nucleus As the name denotes, they contain granules, these granules contain the primary proteins of the epidermis Keratohyalin Keratin The keratohyalin creates the water-resistant barrier but results in all layers superficial to it the inability to transport nutrients and oxygen thus resulting in their death.

Answer 43

Superficial to the stratum basale and deep to the stratum granulosum. Keratinocytes grow and maturate here as they move externally from the stratum basale where they originated (aka the skin nursery) Langerhan cells (Dendritic cells) and melanocytes Organized in stratified squamous epithelium

Answer 44

The primary antigen presenting cell (APC) Transports antigens from the skin to the lymph nodes and spleen

Answer 45

The deepest layer of skin and where all epidermal cells originate. Sometimes referred to as the stratum germinativum because cells germinate there The stem cells (basal cells) are anchored to the basal lamina, a thin layer of collagenous connective tissue of which the basal cells adhere to as they maturate. These basal cells become keratinocytes as they differentiate. Contain: Melanocytes Produce melanin, which gives humans skin pigmentation and determines the color of the irises and absorbs UV radiation. Merkel cells Sensitive to mechanical pressure and when release chemicals that stimulate sensory nerve endings

Answer 46

The stratum spinosal cells contain tonofibrils which are protein filaments that extend from one end of the cell to the other. They begin in end at a desmosome (macula adherens) Desmosome is the entire structure of the proteins involved in anchoring. In general cells anchor themselves together (called cell-cell adhesion) with different variations of cadherin, selectin, and integrin proteins.

Answer 47

Formed by stratum basale Increases the contact area between the dermis and epidermis Dermal papillae extend into epidermis from the dermis Forms the contours of the skin (including fingerprints) Do not change throughout life Ensures a secure grip by increasing surface area Has pores to allow the transportation of water and oils

Answer 48

Deep to the epidermis and superficial to the hypodermis Can be thought of as the metropolitan center of the skin Location of: Blood supply Hair follicles Specialized skin sensors Apocrine glands Exocrine glands

Answer 49

Papillary layer Loose connective tissue Contains capillaries and axons Reticular layer Deep to the papillary layer Irregular, dense connective tissue Surrounds blood vessels, hair follicles, nerves and glands

Answer 50

Excluding muscle and bone, all connective tissue is composed of collagen at different percentages based on the need of the structure it is helping to support. Loose connective tissue consists of another supportive, yet elastic/flexible protein called elastin Also contain ground substance which is the gelatinous filler of the extracellular membrane, consisting of: glycoaminoglycans, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins. Collagen predominates but contains elastin and reticular fibers

Answer 51

Called dense because the collagen is more compact but appear randomly interwoven. The collagen is collagen type I (usually considered the strongest collagen); it is the collagen found in bone. Provides resistance in all directions due to its 3D orientation Not only found in the reticular layer of the dermis but it is the type of connective tissue surrounding most visceral organs.

Answer 52

Called dense because the collagen is more compact but appear in regular appearing patterns. Very strong connective tissue: Almost all type I collagen Great for resistance to prolonged or repeated stress from the SAME direction. Very little ground substance Best example of DRCT are tendons. Strong, cord like structures that anchor muscle to bone

Answer 53

Langer lines or lines of cleavage (also known as tension lines) are collagenous fiber bundles that are aligned in specific patterns throughout the body depending on the stress placed on the skin with normal movement and gravity. Mostly consisting of type I and type III collagen. Very important surgically

Answer 54

Located every where in the body except the palms, soles, lips, and portions of the external genitalia. ≈ 5 million hairs on the human body, only 2% on the head. They are non-living structures composed of the protein keratin that form in an organ known as the hair follicle. Hair papillae = blood supply and innervation Hair bulb = Epithelial cells that surround the hair papillae Hair matrix = Epithelial layer that produces keratin Hair Structure Medulla = Soft keratin Cortex = Hard keratin Hair Function Head = UV protection, insulation, and physical protection. Nares/eye lashes/external auditory canal = Physical barrier to large particles Sensory = Early-warning system to help prevent injury Arrector pili = Smooth muscle tissue extending from the papillary layer of the dermis to the connective tissue sheath around the hair follicle Stimulated by sympathetic endocrine-nervous system (fight, flight or freeze) Cold Hair pigmentation determined by melanocytes in the hair papillae Two Types of Adult Hairs Vellus = Fine hair which covers most of the body Terminal Hair = Thicker and more deeply pigmented. Eyebrows, eyelashes, pubic hair, axillary hair Sebaceous Gland (An exocrine gland) Oil glands; coats the hair follicle/shaft Lubricate dermis with oily, lipid substance Contains biochemicals for inhibiting bacterial growth

Answer 55

Overall functions: Assist in thermoregulation Excrete waste Lubricate dermis Apocrine Sweat Glands Produces viscous secretion Strongly influenced by hormones (think puberty) Nutrient source for bacteria Pheromone production Special Apocrine Glands: Mammary = Milk production Ceruminous = Ear wax Eccrine Sweat Glands Produce thin secretions, mostly water Controlled by nervous system Crucial in thermoregulation Widespread throughout the body, roughly 3 million in the adult Palms and soles have the most per sq cm Pure sweat glands are called merocrine sweat glands; high volume producers

Answer 56

Free Nerve Endings Nociceptors = Pain sensors, think of the word noxious Information sent to the lateral spinothalamic tract Afferent and usually unmyelinated Also detect heat (thermal energy) Extend to the stratum basale Merkel Discs Mechanoreceptors that sense light touch Information sent to the ventral spinothalamic tract Found in the palms, soles, mucosa, and nail beds Extend into the stratum basale Meissner’s Corpuscles (tactile corpuscles) Large, encapsulated mechanoreceptors Extend to the stratum basale Detect light touch, movement, and low-frequency vibration Information sent to the dorsal columns of the spinal cord Found in areas of high sensitivity: eyelids, fingertips, lips, nipples, and external genitalia. Ruffini Corpuscles (Bulbous corpuscles) Located in the dermis and sensitive to pressure, heat, and skin stretching Information sent to the dorsal columns of the spinal cord Capsule surrounds a core of collagen fibers that are continuous with the dermis. This assures it detects stretching Located throughout the body Pacinian Corpuscles (Lamellar corpuscles) Large, encapsulated mechanoreceptors for deep touch and high-frequency vibrations Information sent to the dorsal columns of the spinal cord Located deeper in the dermis, almost in the hypodermis so it is isolated and thus only to detect deeper sensations Located throughout the body Krause’s End Bulb Thought to be a thermoreceptor for detecting cold

Answer 57

Divided into papillary plexus and cutaneous plexus Capillary loops of the papillary plexus extend the most superficially and terminate just outside the epidermis Crucial in thermoregulation Precapillary sphincters are innervated by sympathetic nerve fibers and epinephrine/norepinephrine will contract the sphincter thus reducing blood flow to the skin for the sake of more vital internal organs. Think of flight or fight; turning white as a ghost. The epidermis gets a little oxygen from the capillary loops but much of their oxygen supply is directly from the ambient air; same case for the cornea of the eye.

Answer 58

Contains the subcutaneous fat with many blood vessels. Provides insulation and protection Allows some mobility of the skin AKA subcutaneous tissue (used a lot in medicine); loose connective and adipose tissue Most internal or deep of the dermal layers.

Answer 59

Nail body External component, composed of keratin Bounded by nail grooves and folds Eponychium extends over body at nail root Hyponychium is the free end of the nail bed Paronychium is the lateral skin fold on both sides of the nail Function of the nails are to protect the distal phalanx of the finger or toe it is associated with. Nail Matrix = Contains specialized epithelial cells to produce the nail root Cuticle is another name for the eponychium Underlying blood vessels give the nail its pink appearance, which becomes pale as you move toward the eponychium, because the blood vessels are becoming obscured. This is called the lunula.

Answer 60

Auricle External acoustic meatus Tympanic membrane Ceruminous glands

Answer 61

Auricle External acoustic meatus Tympanic membrane Ceruminous glands

Answer 62

Tympanic cavity Auditory ossicles Malleus, incus, and stapes Auditory tube (pharyngotympanic tube)

Answer 63

Malleus Incus Stapes

Answer 64

Equalizes pressure in middle ear Allows fluid to drain from the middle ear Positioned horizontally in children Results in stasis of fluid

Answer 65

Consists Of: Receptors Membranous labyrinth (within the bony labyrinth) Bony labyrinth Vestibule Semicircular canals Cochlea Utricle Saccule

Answer 66

The vestibular complex and equilibrium Part of inner ear that provides equilibrium sensations by detecting rotation, gravity, and acceleration Consists of: Semicircular canals Utricle Saccule The semicircular canals Each semicircular canal encases a duct The beginning of each duct is the ampulla Within each ampulla is a cristae with hair cells Each hair cell contains a kinocilium and stereocilia These are embedded in gelatinous material called the cupula The movement of the body causes movement of fluid in the canal, which in turn causes movement ofthe cupula and hair cells, which the brain detects The utricle and saccule The utricle and saccule are connected to the ampulla and to each other and to the fluid within the cochlea Hair cells of the utricle and saccule are in clusters called maculae Hair cells are embedded in gelatinous material consisting of statoconia (calcium carbonate crystals) Gelatinous material and statoconia collectively are called an otolith When you rotate your head: The endolymph in the semicircular canals begins to move This causes the bending of the kinocilium and stereocilia This bending causes depolarization of the associated sensory nerve When you rotate your head to the right, the hair cells are bending to the left (due to movement of the endolymph) When you move in a circle and then stop abruptly, the endolymph moves back and forth causing the hair cells to bend back and forth resulting in confusing signals, thus dizziness When you move up or down (elevator movement): Otoliths rest on top of the maculae When moving upward, the otoliths press down on the macular surface When moving downward, the otoliths lift off the macular surface When you tilt side to side: When tilting to one side, the otoliths shift to one side of the macular surface

Answer 67

The Cochlea Consists of “snail-shaped” spirals Spirals coil around a central area called the modiolus Within the modiolus are sensory neurons The sensory neurons are associated with CN VIII Organ of Corti Each spiral consists of three layers Scala vestibuli (vestibular duct): consists of perilymph Scala tympani (tympanic duct): consists of perilymph Scala media (cochlear duct): consists of endolymph / this layer is between the scala vestibuli and scala tympani The scala vestibuli and scala tympani are connected at the apical end of the cochlea Sense organs rest on the basilar membrane within the scala media The Organ of Corti Also known as the spiral organ Rests on the basilar membrane between the scala media and the scala tympani Hair cells are in contact with an overlying tectorial membrane This membrane is attached to the lining of the scala media Sound waves ultimately cause a distortion of the tectorial membrane, thus stimulating the organ of Corti Auditory Pathways Sound waves enter the external acoustic meatus The tympanic membrane vibrates Causes the vibration of the ossicles The stapes vibrates against the oval window of the scala tympani Perilymph begins to move As the perilymph moves: Pressure is put on the scala media This pressure distorts the hair cells of the organ of Corti This distortion depolarizes the neurons Nerve signals are sent to the brain via CN VIII

Answer 68

Accessory structures of the eye Palpebrae (eyelids) Medial and lateral canthus (connect the eyelids at the corners of the eye) Palpebral fissure (area between the eyelids) Eyelashes (contain root hair plexus, which triggers the blinking reflex) Conjunctiva (epithelial lining of the eyelids) Glands: glands of Zeis, tarsal glands, lacrimal gland, lacrimal caruncle

Answer 69

The 6 extrinsic muscles move the eye in many directions Each muscle is associated with one primary action Superior rectus- CN III Inferior rectus- CN III Medial rectus- CN III Lateral rectus- CN VI Superior oblique- CN IV Inferior oblique- CN III “LR6(SO4)3”

Answer 70

SO = down and out IO = up and out SR = up IR = down LR = out MR = in

Answer 71

Covers the inside lining of the eyelids and the outside lining of the eye Fluid production helps prevent these layers from becoming dry Palpebral conjunctiva Inner lining of the eyelids Ocular conjunctiva Outer lining of the eye

Answer 72

All of the glands are for protection or lubrication Glands of Zeis: sebaceous glands / associated with eyelashes Tarsal glands: secrete a lipid-rich product / keeps the eyelids from sticking together / located along the inner margin of the eyelids Lacrimal glands: produce tears / located at the superior, lateral portion of the eye Lacrimal caruncle glands: produce thick secretions / located within the canthus areas An infection of the tarsal gland may result in a cyst An infection of any of the other glands may result in a sty

Answer 73

Part of the lacrimal apparatus The lacrimal apparatus consists of: Lacrimal glands (produce tears) Lacrimal canaliculi Lacrimal sac Nasolacrimal duct Tears are produced by the lacrimal glands Flow over the ocular surface Flow into the nasolacrimal canal (foramen) This foramen enters into the nasal cavity Therefore, when you cry heavily, tears flow across your eye and down your face and also through the nasolacrimal canal into your nose and out, resulting in a “runny” nose

Answer 74

Sclera Cornea Pupil Iris Lens Anterior cavity Posterior cavity Three tunics: (1) fibrous tunic, (2) vascular tunic, and (3) neural tunic Retina

Answer 75

Outer Layer Makes up the sclera and cornea Provides some degree of protection Provides attachment sites for extra-ocular muscles The cornea is modified sclera

Answer 76

Middle Layer Consists of blood vessels, lymphatics, and intrinsic eye muscles Regulates the amount of light entering the eye Secretes and reabsorbs aqueous fluid (aqueous humor) Controls the shape of the lens Includes Iris Consists of blood vessels, pigment, and smooth muscles The pigment creates the color of the eye The smooth muscles contract to change the diameter of the pupil Ciliary body The ciliary bodies consist of ciliary muscles connected to suspensory ligaments, which are connected to the lens Choroid Highly vascularized The innermost portion of the choroid attaches to the outermost portion of the retina

Answer 77

Inner Layer Also called the retina Made of two layers: (pigmented layer – outer layer) (neural layer – inner layer) Retina cells: rods (night vision) and cones (color vision)

Answer 78

Anterior cavity Anterior chamber Posterior chamber Filled with fluid called aqueous fluid Posterior cavity Vitreous chamber Filled with fluid called vitreous fluid

Answer 79

Aqueous fluid Sometimes called aqueous humor Secreted by cells at the ciliary body area Enters the posterior chamber (posterior of the iris) Flows through the pupil area Enters the anterior chamber Flows through the canal of Schlemm Enters into venous circulation If this fluid cannot drain through the canal of Schlemm, pressure builds up This is glaucoma Vitreous fluid Gelatinous material in the posterior chamber Sometimes called vitreous humor Supports the shape of the eye Supports the position of the lens Supports the position of the retina Aqueous humor can flow across the vitreous fluid and over the retina If this fluid is not of the right consistency, the pressure is reduced against the retina The retina may detach from the posterior wall (detached retina)

Answer 80

Light waves pass through the cornea Pass through the anterior chamber Pass through the pupil Pass through the posterior chamber Pass through the lens The lens focuses the image on some part of the retina This creates a depolarization of the neural cells Signal is transmitted to the brain via CN II The retina There are rods and cones all over the retina 100% cones in the fovea centralis area The best color vision is when an object is focused on the fovea centralis 0% rods or cones in the optic disc area If an object is focused on this area, vision does not occur Also known as the “blind spot” The cones require light to be stimulated (that’s why we see color) At night (still has to be at least a small amount of light), the cones deactivate, and the rods begin to be activated (that’s why we can see at night but we can’t determine color at night)

Answer 81

Larynx Upper for this class???

Answer 82

Provides an area for gas exchange between the air and the blood Moves air to and from exchange surfaces of lungs Protects the respiratory surfaces from dehydration (for example) Provides protection against invading pathogens Produces sound involved in verbal communication Assists in the regulation of blood volume, blood pressure, and body fluid pH

Answer 83

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar cells Except for the pharynx, smaller bronchi, and alveoli Stratified squamous cells Nonkeratinized Found in the pharynx Mucus-producing cells Found in the nasal cavity Found in the lower respiratory tract Pseudostratified ciliated columnar cells Cilia move mucus in an upward manner (mucociliary escalator) to pharynx so debris can be coughed out or swallowed Stratified squamous cells Provide protection against abrasion Mucous cells Produce mucus so inhaled debris will get stuck and not enter the lungs

Answer 84

Air enters the external nares or nostrils Passes by the nasal vestibule Area supported by paired alar and lateral cartilages Enters the nasal cavity Separated into left and right portions by nasal septum Bony portion composed of fused vomer and perpendicular plate of ethmoid Anterior portion composed of hyaline cartilage Air flows in and around the nasal conchae Inferior, middle, and superior conchae As air swirls around the conchae, debris gets stuck in the mucus As air swirls around the conchae, the air warms and humidifies before entering the trachea Air enters the internal nares Air enters the nasopharynx area

Answer 85

A cylinder whose cartilaginous walls are stabilized by ligaments or skeletal muscles or both Begins at the level of vertebra C3 to C5 Ends at the level of vertebra C6 to C7

Answer 86

Thyroid cartilage Contains the laryngeal prominence Hyaline cartilage Cricoid cartilage Encircles the trachea Hyaline cartilage Epiglottis Closes over the glottis during swallowing of food Elastic cartilage Paired Laryngeal Cartilages Some play a role in the opening and closing of the glottis Consists of: Arytenoid cartilages (hyaline cartilage) Corniculate cartilages (hyaline cartilage) Cuneiform cartilages (elastic cartilage)

Answer 87

Laryngeal Ligaments Vestibular and vocal ligaments Extend between the thyroid cartilage and the arytenoids Vestibular ligaments lie within the vestibular folds The inelastic vestibular folds are also known as false vocal cords and play no role in sound production The vocal ligaments are associated with the delicate vocal folds The elastic vocal folds are also known as the true vocal cords and play a role in sound production

Answer 88

Characteristics of the trachea 11 cm long and 2.5 cm diameter Bifurcates at the carina into the right and left bronchi at T5 Contains 15–20 tracheal cartilages Composed of hyaline cartilage Each cartilage ring is actually C-shaped, not a complete ring Connecting one cartilage ring to another are annular ligaments The lining consists of: Mucosa or mucous membrane Respiratory epithelia Lamina propria Submucosa The posterior side of the cartilage ring is the trachealis muscle This muscle allows for constriction and dilation of the trachea

Answer 89

Each main bronchus enters the lung at the point called the hilum The hilum is also the point of entrance andexit of the pulmonary blood vessels

Answer 90

Structure of the lungs The apex points superiorly and the base inferiorly Lobes and Fissures of the Lungs The right lung has three lobes Superior, middle, and inferior lobes Contains a horizontal fissure and an oblique fissure The left lung has two lobes Superior and inferior lobes Contains the oblique fissure Left lung has a cardiac notch

Answer 91

The main bronchi branch numerous times once inside the lungs Each main bronchus divides to form: Lobar bronchi (also called secondary bronchi) Lobar bronchi branch to form segmental bronchi (tertiary bronchi) Each segmental bronchus goes to a specific lung area called a bronchopulmonary segment Lobar bronchi and segmental bronchi have hyaline cartilage plates to provide support

Answer 92

The lobar bronchi divide to form segmental bronchi Segmental bronchi deliver air to the bronchopulmonary segments The right lung has 10 segmental bronchi and therefore 10 bronchopulmonary segments The left lung has 9 segmental bronchi and therefore 9 bronchopulmonary segments

Answer 93

Segmental bronchi branches many times to give rise to many bronchioles Bronchioles branch into terminal bronchioles Terminal bronchioles are very small They are self-supporting and therefore do not require cartilage plates Contain smooth muscle for bronchodilation (sympathetic stimulation) and bronchoconstriction (parasympathetic stimulation) Terminal bronchioles branch into several respiratory bronchioles within a pulmonary lobule

Answer 94

Respiratory bronchioles are attached to alveolar ducts Alveolar ducts end at alveolar sacs Each lung has about 150 million alveoli Extensive network of capillaries surrounds each alveolus Capillaries drop off carbon dioxide and pick up oxygen Elastic tissue surrounds each alveolus Maintains the shape and position of each alveolus during inhalation and exhalation

Answer 95

The Alveolus and the Blood Air Barrier The cells associated with alveoli The lining consists of a single layer of squamous cells These are called type I alveolar cells Type II alveolar cells are scattered among the type I alveolar cells Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant Surfactant prevents alveolar collapse Alveolar macrophages wander around phagocytizing particulate matter Gas exchange occurs at the blood air barrier Alveolar cell layer (type I and type II alveolar cells) Capillary endothelium Fused basement membrane between alveolar cells and capillary endothelium Gas exchange Carbon dioxide leaves the capillaries and enters the alveolar sacs Oxygen leaves the alveolar sacs and enters the capillaries

Answer 96

The right and left pleural cavities are separated by the mediastinum Each lung is lined by a serous membrane The membrane is made of two continuous layers, or pleura Visceral pleura portion covers the outer surface of the lung Parietal pleura portion covers the inside lining of the thoracic wall and mediastinum and the superior surface of the diaphragm The fluid-filled space created between the visceral and parietal pleurae is the pleural cavity

Answer 97

Primary respiratory muscles Diaphragm Contracts (lowers) to cause inhalation Relaxes (raises) to cause exhalation External intercostals Elevate the ribs to aid in inhalation Accessory respiratory muscles Muscles aiding inhalation include: Serratus anterior Scalenes Pectoralis minor Sternocleidomastoid

Answer 98

PASSIVE EVENT! Accessory respiratory muscles Muscles aiding exhalation include: Internal intercostals Transversus thoracis External oblique Internal oblique Rectus abdominis

Answer 99

Endocardium: Inner lining of myocardium (valves) Myocardium: Contractile muscle tissue Epicardium: outermost layer made of visceral (inner) serous layer of pericardium Pericardial cavity: potential space, some serous fluid Pericardium: 2 layers = 1 fibrous (protective) outer + 1 serous (epicardium)

Answer 100

Striated appearance Dependent on aerobic respiration Lots of mitochondria and myoglobin The circulatory supply of cardiac muscle tissue is very extensive Cardiac muscle cells contract without information coming from the CNS (involuntary) Cardiac muscle cells are interconnected by intercalated discs

Answer 101

Cardiac cells have specialized cell-to-cell junctions The plasma membranes of two adjacent cardiac cells are bound together by desmosomes The intercalated discs bind the myofibrils of adjacent cells together Cardiac muscle cells are connected by gap junctions Ions move directly from one cell to another creating a direct, electrical connection that allows all the muscle cells to form a functional syncytium (contract as one unit)

Answer 102

Functions of the cardiac skeleton Stabilizes the position of cardiac cells Stabilizes the position of the heart valves Provides support for the blood vessels and nerves in the myocardium Helps to distribute the forces of contraction Helps to prevent overexpansion of the heart Provides elasticity so the heart recoils after contraction Isolates atrial cells from ventricular cells

Answer 103

The heart lies slightly to the left of midsagittal plane Located in the mediastinum The base is the superior border of the heart The apex is the inferior portion of the heart The right border is formed by only the right atrium The inferior border is formed by the right ventricle The heart is rotated slightly toward the left The anterior surface consists of the right atrium, right ventricle, and the left ventricle The posterior surface consists of the left atrium and a small portion of right atrium The diaphragmatic surface is composed of the right and left ventricles

Answer 104

The four chambers of the heart can be identified by sulci (grooves) on the external surface Interatrial groove separates the left and right atria Coronary sulcus separates the atria and the ventricles Anterior interventricular sulcus separates the left and right ventricles Posterior interventricular sulcus also separates the left and right ventricles

Answer 105

Expandable anterior portion on left and right atria

Answer 106

A frontal section of the heart reveals: Left and right atria separated by the interatrial septum Left and right ventricles separated by the interventricular septum The atrioventricular valves are formed from folds of endocardium The atrioventricular valves are situated between the atria and the ventricles

Answer 107

Receives oxygen-poor venous blood via the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, and coronary sinus Coronary sinus enters the posterior side of the right atrium Contains pectinate muscles Anterior wall and auricle Interatrial septum contains the fossa ovalis fetal remnant of the foramen ovale that allowed fetal blood to bypass the lungs

Answer 108

Receives oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium Blood enters the right ventricle by passing through the right atrioventricular valve Also called right AV valve or tricuspid valve Blood leaves the right ventricle by passing through the pulmonary valve Also called pulmonary semilunar valve Leads to the pulmonary trunk, then to the right and left pulmonary arteries The right AV valve is connected to papillary muscles via chordae tendineae There are three fibrous flaps or cusps and three papillary muscles Each of the three cusps is connected by the chordae tendineae to separate papillary muscles Papillary muscles and chordae tendineae prevent valve inversion when the ventricles contract

Answer 109

The Right Ventricle The internal surface of the right ventricle consists of: Trabeculae carneae = Muscular ridges Moderator band Found only in the right ventricle Muscular band that extends from the interventricular septum to the ventricular wall Prevents overexpansion of the thin-walled right ventricle

Answer 110

Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the right and left pulmonary veins Pectinate muscles restricted to auricle Blood passes through the left atrioventricular valve bicuspid valve or left AV valve Also called the mitral valve

Answer 111

Has the thickest wall Needed for strong contractions to pump blood throughout the entire systemic circuit Compare to the right ventricle, which has a thin wall since it only pumps blood through the pulmonary circuit Does not have a moderator band Prominent trabeculae carneae The left AV valve has chordae tendineae connecting to two cusps and to two papillary muscles Blood leaves the left ventricle by passing through the aortic valve Also called aortic semilunar valve Blood enters the ascending aorta Blood then travels to the aortic arch and then down the descending aorta and to all body parts (systemic)

Answer 112

There are four valves in the heart Two AV valves Tricuspid and bicuspid valves Two semilunar valves Aortic and pulmonary valves Each AV valve consists of four parts Ring of connective tissue Connects to the heart tissue Part of fibrous skeleton of the heart Cusps Chordae tendineae Connect to the cusps and papillary muscles Papillary muscles Contract in such a manner to prevent AV valve inversion AV valve function during the cardiac cycle Papillary muscles relax Due to pressure in the atria, the AV valves open Blood flows from atria to ventricle When the ventricles contract, pressure causes the AV valves to close and semilunar valves to open Closure of AV valves prevents regurgitation or backflow into the atria This forces blood through the open semilunar valves

Answer 113

Originate at the base of the ascending aorta Supply the cardiac muscle tissue via the coronary circulation The major coronary arteries Right coronary artery (RCA) Atrial branches Right marginal branch Posterior interventricular branch Left coronary artery (LCA) Circumflex branch Left marginal branch Anterior interventricular branch

Answer 114

Major branches off the right coronary artery: Atrial branches Right marginal branch Posterior interventricular branch Conducting system branches

Answer 115

Major branches off the left coronary artery Anterior interventricular branch Branches that lead to the posterior interventricular branch called anastomoses Circumflex branch Branches to form the left marginal branch Branches to form the posterior left ventricular branch

Answer 116

Drain cardiac venous blood ultimately into the right atrium Main coronary veins Great cardiac vein Delivers blood to the coronary sinus Middle cardiac vein Delivers blood to the coronary sinus Coronary sinus Drains directly into the posterior aspect of the right atrium Main coronary veins Posterior vein of the left ventricle Parallels the posterior left ventricular branch Small cardiac vein Parallels the right coronary artery Anterior cardiac veins Branches from the right ventricle cardiac cells

Answer 117

Sinoatrial node (SA node) Located in the posterior wall of the right atrium near the entrance of the superior vena cava Also called the cardiac pacemaker Pacemaker cells in the SA node automatically generate 80–100 action potentials per minute Bradycardia—slower-than-normal heart rate Tachycardia—faster-than-normal heart rate Atrioventricular node (AV node) Sits within the floor of the right atrium

Answer 118

The SA node sets the heart rate but can be altered Impulses from the autonomic nervous system modify the pacemaker activity Nerves associated with the ANS innervate the: SA node AV node Cardiac cells Smooth muscles in the cardiac blood vessels The effects of NE and ACh on nodal tissue Norepinephrine from the sympathetic division of the ANS causes: An increase in the heart rate An increase in the force of contractions Acetylcholine from the parasympathetic division of the ANS causes: A decrease in the heart rate A decrease in the force of contractions Cardiac centers in the medulla oblongata modify heart rate Stimulation of cardioacceleratory center: activates sympathetic neurons Heart rate increases Stimulation of cardioinhibitory center: activates parasympathetic neurons Vagus (N X) is involved Heart rate decreases

2025 Anatomy Exam 1 Flashcards

Lectures 1-4: Intro/Histology, Integumentary/Eye/Ear, Pulmonary, Cardiac/Great Vessels (171 cards)