SLOA Learning outcomes Flashcards
Define the terms “culture” and “cultural norms”
Culture: A dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life (Matsumoto & Juang).
Cultural norms: These are the rules which indicate the expected behaviour in a group. They are transmitted from generation to generation.
Outline principles that define SLOA.
- Social and cultural environment influences individual behaviour.
- Our sense of self depends on the types of groups we belong to and identify with.
Explain how principles of SLOA may be demonstrated in research.
- Social and cultural environment influences individual behaviour. Study by Milgram (1963), the electricity and conformity experiment.
- Our sense of self depends on the types of groups we belong to and identify with. The social identity theory by Tajfel and Turner (1979). The minimal group paradigm by Tajfel et al., 1971.
Evaluate research on conformity to group norms.
Asch 1951
Sherif 1935
Abrams et al., 1990
Crutchfield 1954
Discuss factors influencing conformity.
Explanations of conformity:
-Informational influence
When people use other’s information as valid, either because no other info is available or they see it as trustworthy. Sherif (1935)
-Normative influence
the need to be liked and accepted by others. Asch 1951.
-Referent informational infuence
Conformity because of a membership in a group, and to a norm and not others. Abrams et al., 1990.
Situational factors affecting conformity:
Group size: Asch made others studies where there was an extremely clear correlation between the group size and conformity, with only 1 other group member there was no conformity.
Dispositional factors:
Hogg and Vaughan 2008: low self-esteem, high anxiety, feelings of low status in a group etc.
Cultural factors:
Bond and Smith 1996: meta-analysis on 133 studies in 17 different countries. More conformity in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures. 15% in Belgian students, 58% in Indian students.
Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour.
Hofstedes pioneering research on work-related attitudes and values of IBM workers in 72 countries. (2001) Analysis showed five major work-related values, such as:
Individualism/collectivism
Petrova et al. 2007 and Bond and Smith 1996.
Time orientation/ confucian dynamisn
Chen et al. 2005
Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behaviour.
Heider 1958: people need to make sense of the social world. they attribute behaviour to internal and external causes.
Dispositional factors:
McCrae and Costa 1999: Five factor model of personality. Neuroticism, Extraversion, Opennes to experience, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness.
Situational factors:
Milgram 1963
Asch 1951
Discuss two errors in attributions.
Fundamental attribution error (FAE)
-bias to attribute other’s behaviour to internal rather than external causes.
Support:
Jones and Harris 1967
Ross et al 1977
Against:
Fein et al.
Cause of the FAE:
Gilbert and Malone’s two-step explanation of FAE:
First step is dispositional
second is situational. We only occasionally proceed to second step.
Self serving bias (SSB)
Success is attributed to dispositional factors, failure to situational.
why? self-protection
Empirical research:
Lau and Russel 1980
Johnson et al 1964
Cultural considerations in the SSB:
Kashima and Triandis (1986)
Strengths & limitaitons of SSB:
Explains why most people from individualistic cultures attribute like that.
However, there is a culture bias, as there is no explanation to why collectivistic cultures and individualistic cultures attribute differently.
Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to relevant studies.
Social identity theory (SIT) by Tajfel and Turner (1979) to study intergroup relations and group processes.
We define who we are by our memberships to different social groups. Individuals want a positive self concept and a positive social identity.
Based on four interrelated concepts:
–Social categorization
Social groups divided to ingroups and outgroups
Category accentuation effect is the exaggeration of ingroup and outrgoup differences and similarities.
–Social identity
We adopt a group identity. Self-concept is based on the group membership. Social identity affects behaviour. Enhances self-esteem.
–Social comparison
The will and need to compare own social group with others.
–Social distinctiveness
The will to make distinctions between own ingroup and outgroups.
These concepts lead to:
Ethnocentrism: the ingroup serving bias.
Ingroup favoroutism
Ingroup differentiation - behaviour that emphasizes differences between ingroup and outgroup.
Stereotypical thinking
Conformity to ingroup norms.
Studies relevant:
Tajfel et al. 1971
Tajfel 1970
Brown 1978
Minimal group paradigm - choosing ingroups and outgroups randomly. Group members don’t know who is in their ingroup.
IT is all that is needed for showing the strength of ingroup bias.
Wetherall - cross-cultural validity: less ingroup bias in cultures that encourage cooperation rather than competition.
Evaluation of SIT:
Limitations:
-minimal group paradigm has been criticized for being too far from a natural setting: people might not behave that way actually.
-SIT cannot explain how ingroup favouritism can explain violence against outgroup.
-SIT cannot explain why social constraints such as poverty can play a bigger role in behaviour than belonging to an ingroup.
Strengths:
- Good for explaining many things. Good empirical support.
- Has been applied to understanding of ethnocentrism, ingroup favoritism, conformity to ingroup norms, stereotyping.
- SIT can explain some of the mechanisms of positive distinctiveness to ingroup by maximizing differences to outgroup.
Examine the role of two cultural dimension on behaviour.
Definition of culture. Hofstede 2001: cultural dimensions and behaviour. IBM emplpyees in 71 countries. Five work related values: Indi/colle Power distance Masc/femin Long/short
Individualistic cultures vs. collectivistic cultures:
Bond and Smith 1996
Petrova et al 2007
Time orientation:
Chen et al., 2005
Using one or more examples, explain “emic” and “etic” concepts.
Emic research studies one culture alone - culture specific phenomena. Bond and Smith 1996.
Etic research studies study phenomena across cultures, purpose to find out whether phenomena are universal or not. Kashima and Triandis (1986)
Explain formation of stereotypes and their effect on behaviour.
stereotypes are highly evaluative generalizations of groups of people.
-Stereotypes may be very similar to schemas:
they are formed because there is too much information in the social world
-capacity to process information is too little
-therefore OVERSIMPLIFICATIONS are made
-they may have a grain of truth
stereotypes may be about sex, culture, nationality, sexual orientation, ethnicity, profession, hobby…
Explanations on the formation of stereotypes:
- Social-cognitive explanation:
- -too complex social world
- –brains need over simplification
- -we categorize to help us make sense of the world
- -stereotypes are schemas and have the following characteristics:
- —energy saving
- — automatically activated
- —- stable and resistant to change
- —affect behaviour
Cohen 1981: schemas on certain things affect, create a stereotype
Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies.
Albert Bandura suggested SLT as an extension for existing learning theories. (Operant and classical conditioning)
Based on assumption that people learn also by observing others.
According to theory there are INDIRECT FORMS OF LEARNING (Vicarious learning) and INDIRECT FORMS OF REINFORCEMENT (Vicarious reinforcement)
One form of vicarious learning is observational learning. Can be direct or indirect.
Four important factors in SLT:
Attention
Paying attention to the model is essential.
Retention
Is needed for imitation.
Reproduction
Must have the skills to repeat behaviour.
Motivation
Must be motivated, for ex. a reward etc.
Studies:
Bandura 1965
Charlton et al. 2002
Discuss the use of compliance techniques.
Compliance is a form of social influence which involves a direct request from one person to another.
The techniques are the ways in which individuals are influenced to comply to demands.
There are several compliance techniques.
Cialdini is a key researcher, came up with things that affect: authority, liking, commitment, reciprocity etc.
One example of a used compliance technique is
the foot-in-the-door-technique (FITD)
First a smaller request, then bigger. Reason for FITD according to Cialdini: Need to be consistent in behaviours, attitudes, beliefs. Need to commit.
Key studies:
Freedman and Fraser (1966) A and B.
Lowballing is another example.
First a desirable deal that the person agrees to. Then it is changed to worse, and they still agree.
Burger and Cornelius 2003
Cialdini et al. 1974
Discuss the ethical considerations related to research studies in SLOA.
Ethical considerations are taken into account to avoid harm to animal and human participants. They are: deception Stress informed consent Debriefing Harm Right to withdraw Confidentiality
In research:
Milgram
-There was deception: participants thought they were taking part in a learning experiment
-Very stressful situation: giving electric shocks, must obey but perhaps didn’t want to. Participants showed signs of extreme stress, but study was continued.
-Right to withdraw: the participants were told to continue although they said they didn’t want to.
-Debriefing in the end: they were told no shocks etc. they got to speak about feelings, it was assured they are normal. Most were glad they had participated. One was not.
-could not give informed consent because deception. but that would have harmed the experiment.
Asch 1955
- Deception: participants did not know they were the only one observed, and that the others were confederates, and actually they studied conformity rather than vision.
- No informed consent because of deception.
- Debriefing where the actual aim was told.
- Stress to the participants could have been caused.
Bandura 1965
- Children used, always especially risky
- deception: the children didn’t know they were studied for their behaviour
- Difficult to get informed consent from children: their parents were asked but is it the same?
- The situation could have taught the children to behave aggressively: is it ethical to teach things like that to children?
- Hard to debrief young children: they had already learnt the aggressive behaviour and given prizes for it.
