2103 Flashcards

Question

Satiety neural substrates

Answer 1

Linked to the hypothalamus

Answer 2

Monkeys stop reacting to smell of food when have enough

Answer 3

Links to reward and when full it no longer feels like a reward

Answer 4

• OFC activates less when sniffing bananas after satiety • PET scan showed activation when found chocolate pleasant

Answer 5

The more palatable a food is the more options are released, so niceness links with wanting it

Answer 6

Not all foods loose their pleasantness which can encourage over eating, but when they do it encourages varied eating

Answer 7

Mood effects eating as stress/anxiety can cause under eating but depression can cause over for the energy in carbs

Answer 8

This says when carbs are eaten Thai increases insulin which reduces amino acids in the blood except from tryptophan. This goes to the brain and releases serotonin reducing stress. • research shows when overweight women were either given a high protein or carb drink and they rated carb better for improving mood

Answer 9

When the individual is stressed this links to high cortisol which causes eating to secure food in times of stress

Answer 10

This says when eating carbs they feel better due to the dopamine in these. • shows when watching g a sad and happy film more choc was eaten in happy • however another piece showed when shown funny/sad clip and offered popcorn, more ate when sad

Answer 11

Memory and attention • can affect memory - r - those with memory problems may eat more • when distracted can eat more - r - number of people correlated with meal size - r - eat more with people present

Answer 12

A >30kg/m3 which can cause strokes, cancer, diabetes etc and has been increasing. Doubled since 1980’s.

Answer 13

Leptin is stored in adipose cells and released into blood when full/at satiety to reduce intake. When dieting and not full, less leptin is released so generates hunger.

Answer 14

Thrifty gene, genetic drift, protein leverage. 1. When go through famine, they learn to deposit fat and this often doesn’t come, can also be passed onto offspring (dutch famine study). 2. Genetic drift - animals that’s suffer high predation eat lots to maintain weight and have back up 3. Protein leverage - protein heals through energy intake but can cause obesity

Answer 15

Early development, taste (liking and sensitivity), externality, trauma 1. Thrifty gene babies are smaller and then become obsese to make up for it 2. The CD36 gene can affect pleasantness of food so either need a low amount or a high amount to get this causing obesity (research). 3. Some respond to smell/taste more 4. Trauma correlated. 60% of observe were abused (research).

Answer 16

A natural reoccurring altered state of consciousness where muscles movement is reduced as well as reduces interacting with environment

Answer 17

Arousal - physiologically awake and alert Sleep - altered states of consciousness Coma - period of unconsciousness due to tbii Vegetative state - altering between sleep and moderate arousal Minimally concious- brief stages of purposeful actions Brain death - no brain activittyy

Answer 18

1. Awake and alert - beta waves - aware. 2. Awake and drowsy - Alpha waves - drowsy but muscles work 3. Sleep - light, heavy and dreaming 4. • NREM 1 - alpha and theta waves - easily awoken and some dreams • 2 - bursts of brain activity to respond to stimuli • 3 - Thelma and delta waves - • 4 - give off low frequency waves - loss of xoncousness 5. REM - no dreaming, twitching, muscle paralysis, irregular breathing Each is 90 mins

Answer 19

Is the only universal behaviour which has no clear underlying function However must do because other wise it would be eliminated and not universal (universal behaviour). However is fatal without and is used for concentration and mental health

Answer 20

Hibernation theory and conservation theory

Answer 21

It is a way to conserve energy, which the sleep pattern links to energy intake such as size and diet. • carnivores eat more than herbivores • Smaller animals need more sleep • those aware of predators all the time get less sleep • increased periods of sleep in energy shortages

Answer 22

Sleep is for the repair and regrowth of cells, as REM restores brain cells and more rem is used in brain growth • less sleep as brain stops growing • when rats were deprived of sleep for 4 weeks they ate more for more energy but there immune systems failed after 3 weeks • 50% of REM is restored

Answer 23

90 min cycle unaffected by light, eating, sleep cycles etc. however other bio tyhtms are these bio rhythms however are controlled by endogenous pacemakers (internal clock) and exogenous zeitgebers (external changes). And sleep is controlled by these changing

Answer 24

Fibres in the hypothalamus receive light info The pineal gland releases cortisol for wakefulness

Answer 25

Lights, clocks etc…

Answer 26

2 genes keep body click regulated within a 24 hour frame (period and timeless) through releasing protein.

Answer 27

Period gene expressed in SCN linked to eye and pineal gland

Answer 28

If no windo we get out of sync

Answer 29

• shift work have higher risk of heart disease and cancers. • Women working night shifts 3X a week for 6 years are more likely to have disease as night work reduces melatonin which increases tumour growth • jet lag impairs baseball performance Obesity more common with irregular sleep as animals as when following 20 hour light dark cycle gain weight

Answer 30

REM is used in recovery for the brain so deprivation can cause physical symptoms

Answer 31

• reticular formation - message transfer and motor control which maintains arousal and either keeps awake or wakes (research). • locus Coeruleus - emits impulses for meaningfulness for awakefulness • hypothalamus - released histamine which causes drowsiness but also can release orexin causing wakefulness. Also supported by mice lacking this fall asleep when should be alert. • basal forbrain - releases acetylcholine which increases arousal and sharpens attention • Thalamus - stimulation here results in immediate wakefulness • neurotransmitters GABA - sleep depends on GABA inhibition. As when a neuron is active GABA increases • Brain functions in REM - activity in motor cortex decreases, but increases in pons

Answer 32

• restoring mental and emotional health - during REM there is no noradrenaline activity as research shows sleep removes the emotional value of memories. > Those with PTSD have disturbed REM as they have higher noradrenaline which prevents REM meaning they can’t take the emotion from memories. • Improved cognitive abilities - REM sleep allows consideration of knowledge > research showed an answer popped out when awoken from rem sleep > if you nap after learning something this improves memory > sleep deprivation shows worse memory tasks

Answer 33

• Activation hypothesis - dreaming makes sense of info which starts with bursts of energy in the pons > this activates the cortex which tries to make sense of sensory information • Clinico-Anatomical Hypothesis - dreams begin with arousing stimuli and memories. We forget dreams when we awake because the prefrontal cortex is suppressed.

Answer 34

• sleep apnoea - inspired breathing in sleep, sleepless, heart issue. > hormones, obesity, genes > airway pressure mask, not drinking, loose weight, surgery to remove tissue from trachea • narcolepsy - sudden or gradual periods of sleepiness in the day > lack of orexin or cells that produce orexin which maintains awakefulness > medication that increases dopamine which keeps awake • night terrors - fear and are distressed when awoken • sleep paralysis - feeling of being choked, paralysed and the presence of a demo > paralysis - due to activation of amylgdala and choking due to paralysis of throat muscles > wriggling finger and focusing on this • sleep walking - walking around for seconds to minutes in stage 3 sleep, and don’t remember this > genes, stress > antidepressants, reduce alcohol • REM behaviour disorder - moves around in REM, can injure your self, mainly in older men > no relaxion of muscles > anti-anxiety medication • restless leg syndrome - tingling, unpleasant feeling in legs, more common in women and in the calf > spinal and brain injuries, kidney damage, iron deficiency > medications to increase dopamine, massage, exercises

Answer 35

Is the chronic relapsing brain disorder made up of 3 aspects - compulsion/craving - to take the drug - withdrawal - negative state when access is restricted - loss of control when reducing intake Such as gambling, gaming and substances DSM5 - building a tolerance Affecting relationships Wanting to cut down but can’t

Answer 36

• doroslateral PFC - affects judgement - less active - addicts have lots of synaptic connections which reduces reasoned judgments • Ventral striatum - motivation to act - more active - increased striatum activity shown in many different situations such as tasting sugar, imagining spent being pleasant, gambling

Answer 37

Nature/disease model - the NIDA says it’s a brain deserve caused by a genetic vulnerability • structural changes associated with judgment Nurture/developmental model of learning - Marc Lewis said it’s a learned skill as deep learning leads to structural brain changes • hippocampal changes after learning in taxi drivers Interaction - LEARNING changes synaptic structured such as less synapse growth Conclusion - because the same brain mechanisms are affected in behavioural and chemical substance abuse doesn’t cause addiction

Answer 38

Developmental learning model of addiction - is a cycle initiated with operant con. First there’s a trigger Wuxi activated the VTA which produces dopamine which accentuates the cravings. These cravings mean the striatum then communicated with the dorsolateral planning how to satisfy cravings. This results in visual activating such as imagining and motor cortex acts out the behaviour. This then causes a decrease in dop so need more, strengthening the pathway. Delayed discounting model and brain processes The closer we are to a reward the higher value we believe, so craving makes a short term reward better than a delayed benefit. Therefore effecting judgment. Cognitive fatigue When people suppress cravings it effects cognition and cues so abstinence is exhausting and they relapse

Answer 39

Drugs interfere with synaptic transmission as they either facilitate/agonists (mimicing the effects of drugs) or inhibit/antagonists (block the neurotransmitters) at synapses. Drugs have an affinity (how strong it acts as a key and a look) and an efficacy (how well it activates the receptors).

Answer 40

For example xoxiane which does this through stimulating dop in the synapse by preventing reuptake of dopamine. Low doses of stimulants enhance attention whereas high impairs as blocks dop reuptake

Answer 41

Nature - twin studies show a 50-60% relation in nicotine dependence Nurture - however if you never smoke the gene is redundant and the learning theory shows that a close paring of thing and reward causes a stronger association

Answer 42

Knowledge on operant conditioning means marketing stopped and replaced with bad pictures or blank

Answer 43

• research on cocaine shows it stimulates more dendrites and some stimulate fewer. • Resecarh shows nicotine stimulates nicotine receptors increasing dop release . Research also shows animals with more receptors respond more to rewards. • research shows opiates bind to endorphin receptors in the brain increasing firing of dop • Marijuana causes 2 chemicals to bind to cannabinids which causes more dop release. • hallucinogenics increases dop and serotnin. • alcohol increases responses at GABA receptors, but research shows this increases dop and risks but research also showed decreasing brain activity. • caffeine - enhances mood and causes physical symptoms. Research showed it increased co-ordination symptoms

Answer 44

Tolerance • more needed to reach desired effect - rays constantly having opioids could cope with more without affects as built a tolerance Withdrawal • the body prepares for a drug and when not there causes symptoms. Produces opposite effect of drug. - rat study. Cravings • associated with cues - a lit cigarette caused cravings. Supported by cue reactivity paradigm - when given peppermint and a cocaine the peppermint smell caused cravings

Answer 45

Anger causing the hostile behaviour

Answer 46

Chromosomal abnormalities MAOA gene TS Selective breeding

Answer 47

1/1000 males have extra Y chromosome 9/314 in high security hospital were aggressive However only characteristic associated with height

Answer 48

To explain using concordance rates - 50 and 19 physical 28 and 7 verbal

Answer 49

A dysfunction affects how this gene codes for enzymes to break down neurotransmitters such as serotnin

Answer 50

Breeding for a purpose - nice without MAOA more aggressive - an extremely aggressive ditch family showed all males had this However a study for 25 years showed only backed aggressive if suffered child abide

Answer 51

Have different more complex brains and social enviro however can study ethically

Answer 52

• lingic systen • neurotransmitters - serotonin • hormones - testosterone

Answer 53

The limbic system is made up of the hypothalamus and amygdala which are involved in motivation, emotion and agression. The amygdala responds to threats. • A link shown between amygdala and criminal aggressive behaviour • When damaged amygdalas in animals shows predator like attacks such as rats • FMRI’s show this activation in brains when offered an unfair offer of money • However Gage was prefrontal cortex

Answer 54

A link between lower serotonin levels and showing aggression • this link shown in rats • when individuals given a drug to lower this showed more aggression Dopamine is also associated with reward behaviours such as agression

Answer 55

In cells in the testes which is associated with aggression at birth • when castrated mice this showed less aggression, and increased when given testosterone • when held a g this showed increased agression?

Answer 56

Could cause screening to allow for interventions to reduce it

Answer 57

Recognition of info about the word from sensory input to quickly make sense of world unconsciously. Theories are either bottom up (due to sensory data) or top down (prior expectations to interpret data).

Answer 58

- newborns prefer tho look at stimuli resembling humans faces - babies as young as 4 days old prefer a schematic than jumbled up face - researchers flash photos at p’s measuring brain activity. EEG showed that temporal lobe areas associated with higher level visual processing for faces and objects in adults but only faces in infants similarly.

Answer 59

Babies visual perception is yet to fully mature as change with age. Do these occur a month later due to experience or a maturing visual system Abilities in new borns could show nature however could be learning the womb which is nature.

Answer 60

Suggestions that it depends on different mechanisms than object It also includes identification, gaze and emotional expression all mediated by differ brain systems suggesting uniqueness

Answer 61

Cohen identified 3 processes 1. Face recognition 2. Face identification 3. Face recall - when a teacher was asked to identify a student out of 4 individuals this deteriorated over time supporting identification. The brain areas involved are fusiform face area - identified an area specifically involved. Support for speciality - FFA is active in faces not objects Evolution to recognise own child However - shown birds and cards while in fMRI and asked to identify them. Found FFA was active in any highly recognisable thing. Therefore may just be a form of expert object recognising.

Answer 62

Stimulus driven which receptors transfer to occipital lobes which groups cues into features into a facial image. Which may either match one in memory or create new. - modelled Ona. Computer and showed it can be taught following the process - focus on external features to internal as less likely to change However - combined wrong combinations of top and bottom faces which showed 2 halves formed a new holistic face, suggesting whole layout is important - people find it hard to recall face with scrambled features - p’s recalled features to construct a photo and judges only correctly guessed 12.5%

Answer 63

This most influential theory suggests it is mainly holistic but involves 8 components/sub processes working together in a sequence. Made up of 2 pathways familiar faces and recognising expressions and therefore assumes faces are special. Stages LEARN - 22 p’s kept a record of mistakes when recognising people over 8 weeks and this showed most errors involved remembering info about people, but not their name. This is because PIN comes before NRV. - P’s we’re faster at identifying whether a particular face of a policing than Id wifi ting their names. However - found p’s could retrieve name despite identifying PNI

Answer 64

Conditions - prosopagnosia and capgras syndrome Real world applications - legal system and counter heroism

Answer 65

Delusion of doubled when left is not working on Bruce diagram as conciliatory recognition but not emotional. In non psychiatric brain damage and psychiatric illness • women reported doubles replaced her husband - reported by capgras • linked with rh visual processing and frontal lobe brain lesions • later thought to damage pathways between recognition and emotion areas Epiodmilogh Under 1 percent in psychiatric 1/10 in hospitalised with slxuhosis Need for treatment as leaf’s to 6% Joni ide Hard to understand meaning treatments are hard Anti psychotic med and therapy is best

Answer 66

Face blindness where unable to recognise faces unless given non facial description where right is working? of Bruce’s diagram. Up to 2% of population • Oliver sacks bumped into a man in the mirror to later realise it was himself Many brain regions Appear to have unconscious recognition of faces despite not identifying • showed them unfamiliar and familiar faces and couldn’t identify despite a psotive galvanic skin response which supports the separate nodes in the skin response (Look at mindmap)

Answer 67

A description of suspect: Construct likeness issuing composite graphical representation and can eliminate individuals. • using bruces’ theory made faces that most resembled suspect using component analysis by repeating until likeness. • however found efit was no better as only good when had picture with them 35% when done by p vs 25 by operator Identifying a lineup: tells police whether they recognise • naturally assume they must be there Evaluating face recognition in identity parades research • investigated how successful line up procedures are by conducting meta-analysis of 30 studies to analyse how many false positives. Found more identifications in stimuktaenosis but also more false supporting relative judgment theory. • sig number of suspects identified by this later found not guilty by DNA • 40% right however 20 wrong

Answer 68

Techniques extract key features from Dave image then used to search for matching. • 75% of false convictions caused by eyewitness innacuracy so AI face recognition could replace this • super recognisers are employed by police as during London riots 20 police identified 600 rioters vs 1 from a computer suggesting it is trainable

Answer 69

Leads to decline in it and name teyiriveal but not vocab Plasticity causes early improvements • research shows loss in retrieved of names

Answer 70

• gave p’s one min to say names to faces and showed on top of tongue. When given opportunity showed 95 got it right suggesting that we’re still in memory Aging frontal lobe causes them to struggle recalling where or when event happened called saucer memory • an item is borrowed by experimenter at beginning and p’s have to remember to ask for it back to test prospective memory (performing a behaviour in the future) • however research said these are not realistic

Answer 71

3 hypothesis 1. Global slowing process - aging slows cog processes 2. Cluster switching hypothesis - retrievel is a dynamic process involving search for categories then recall of words within. Aging slows switch between categories 3. Cue maintenance - associated with working memory as use cues to assess info as can focus on one cue whereas aging causes focus on distracting cues.

Answer 72

Gradual decline in cog functioning in both s/ltm can lead to confusion, thinking issues and judgment Alzheimer’s may first affect stm and behaviour, speech, concentration, mood changes and progressively worsens.

Answer 73

1. Abnormal brain functions - amyloid plaques and granuovacultoliar degeneration of the cells cytoplasm 2. Significant neuron loss - in frontal and temporal gyri shrink 20% 3. Affected cortical areas - olfactory and orbiotofrontal cortex 4. Genetics - beta amyloid gene carried 21 or 19 may result in abnormalities in plaque form

Answer 74

Anterograde amnesia is the loss of ability to form new memories after the event - HM had an operation to remove 2/3 hippocampus, parts of amygdala and temporal lobes. This caused STM to be normal but not LTM. - Wearing had a brain infection which destroyed his hippocampus and was stuck in snapshots of time Explanation for this - issues with transfer from STM to LTM, retrieval of info from LTM and disruption of consolidation of memories. Causes - carbon monoxide, alcoholism and head injuries.

Answer 75

A process which stabilises memory after acquisition. 3 process have been suggested. 1. Synaptic consolidation - within a few hours of learning 2. Systems consolidation - hippocampus memories become independent away from hippocampus 3. Reconsolidation - where previous memories can be made liable again

Answer 76

• long term potentiation - type of plasticity underlying consolidation • synaptic consolidation - across all species and ltm tasks • systems consolidation - memories from hippocampus where first encoded then moved to neo-cortex for more permanent storage

Answer 77

Synaptic is much quicker than system which can’t take up to 2 decades There is evidence to suggest synaptic can take place within minutes of hours of memory learning Distributed learning Can enhance memory consolidation - experimental results suggest distributing lesrning over 24 hours decreases forgetting

Answer 78

Cognitive and neural systems create representations of the world through single cell recordings, EEG and ERP

Answer 79

Invasive procedure where an electrode is implanted into the neuron to collect data is stinuktanelusly recorded from 100 neurons using multi cell recordings and how much a cell responds to a stimulus is recorded to make inferences of cog processes. This can be coded through rate coding - an increase in the rate of firing of a neuron in response to a stimulus or temporal coding - do neurons respond to the same stimulus - 2 areas in visual cortex were stimulated fired but with 2 bars of light - grandmother cell of just 1 thing

Answer 80

Non invasive, activated whole population do neurons to create large electric fields Uses wave structures as these rhymitic oscillations arise as large groups of neurons synchronise firing action potential For example to look at different sleep stages

Answer 81

Non invasive, activated whole population do neurons to create large electric fields Most common EEG when a excitatory neurotransmitter is released this causes positive ion flow into dendtiyes of the post synaptic neuron. M For example could investigate face processing + good for cognition timings - not good for spacial resolution

Answer 82

Structural imaging as different tissues have different properties CT and MRI Whereas functional imaging measures moment to moment characteristics in the brain associated with processing

Answer 83

CT scan is where narrow beams of X-rays sent by a computer moving around the head to produce a slice of the brain to calculate how much radiation is going through and produces a slice of the brain pic Advantage - located brain damage However invasive

Answer 84

MRI works by applying a magnetic field on the brain aligning the water molecules Advantages - no ionising radiation Better spatial resolution than CT Can detect blood oxygen changes

Answer 85

Invasive measure of blood flow by injecting radioactive substance and accumulates to one area and represented as coloured maps

Answer 86

Used mri equipment but looks at oxygen whcih distorts magnetic field

Answer 87

Episodic and semantic memories are consolidated by the hippocampus and stored in the cortex. Procldcursl memlries are consolidated by basal ganglia

Answer 88

Mainly considering how we recall/retrieve information that had already been consolidated This is most easy to study using episodic memory such as through free recall, serial recall, yes no recognition etc

Answer 89

For ages it was believed recognition memory involved a single process - familiarity But Others thought two processes were involved - recollection (remembering information about a memory) and familiarity (a sense of knowing without knowing context).

Answer 90

Familiarity is faster and both processes are independent. Familiarity can be described via signal detection theory. Recollection is a threshold proceeds. Info is either retrieved or not, - changed to context of recognition memory only affects recollection. - doffenrce levels of processing also only in this, suggesting functionally independent.

Answer 91

Reservations investigated the temporal lobes role in recognition memory and identified 3 structures in temporal lobe for recognition 1. perirhinal cortex - item based info for familiarity 2. Parahippocampal cortex - where info 3. Hippocampus - binds what and where info More recently unitisstion hypothesis has been suggested saying the structures in temporal lobes have different roles in recognition but may integrate

Answer 92

Fmri is correlational as it shows it is more active in certain conditions but not nessercarily showing that they are nessercary or what they do Some areas are feel such as medial temporal love and therefore tricky to investigate in neuroimaging

Answer 93

Remember - know: procedure - a remember response indicates you consciously recollect the word. Where as know indicates you have no recollection of it but you know it was presented before. We’re asked to give confidence ratings on their answers. Originally developed to differentiate between types of conciseness. Advantages Inclusive measure of recognition as it tests both recollection and memory. Has consistent findings. Disadvantages Needs very clear instructions so they understand. Investigator bias as p’s asked to justify each judgement to the experimenter.

Answer 94

1. See a trigger which activates the VTA producing dop. 2. Dop activates striatum/nacc which leads to cravings 3. Midbrain also releases dopamine which accentuates craving in the nacc meaning it communicates with dpfc to act on craving 4. This planning increases visual cortex activation as they imagine doing the behaviour 5. Recruits motor cortex to act out the behaviour causing pleasure which reinforces it 6. The behaviour causes loss of dopamine and encourages them to seek out the cycle again 7. More it is done, more it is strengthened