Chapter 13 Personality Flashcards
13.1 Differentiate personality vs. trait and discuss early trait theories and the five-factor model.
Personality consists of unique and relatively stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and actions, whereas traits are personal characteristics we use to describe someone. Gordon Allport described individuals by their trait hierarchy. Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck used factor analysis to identify the smallest possible number of traits. More recently, researchers identified a five-factor model (FFM) that can be used to describe most individuals. The five traits are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
13.2 What are the key research findings and criticisms of trait theories?
Evolutionary research and cross-cultural studies support the five-factor mdoel. But trait theories are subject to three major criticisms: lack of explanation (no explanation for why people develop certain traits and why traits sometimes change), lack of specificity (no specifics provided about which early characteristics endure and which are transient), and ignoring situational effects.
13.3 Discuss the personality-job fit theory.
According to John Holland, a match (or “good fit”) between personality and career choice is a major factor in job satisfaction.
13.4 Summarize the research on animal personality.
Studies report considerable overlap between animal and human personality on three of the five factors in the FFM – extroversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness. One nonhuman dimension, dominance was important for describing animal personality. Researchers also found important cross-species sex differences.
13.5 Describe Freud’s psychoanalytic approach to personality.
Sigmund Freud founded the psychoanaltic approach to personality, which emphasizes the power of the unconscious. The mind (or psyche) reportedly functions on three levels of awareness (conscious, preconscious, and unconscious). Similarly, the perosnality has three distinct structures (id, ego, and superego). The ego struggles to meet the demands of both the id and superego. When these demands conflict, the ego may resort to defense mechanisms to relieve anxiety.
13.6 Summarize Freud’s five psychosexual stages.
According to Freud, all human beings pass through five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. How specific conflicts at each of these stages are resolved is important to personality development.
13.7 compare Freud’s vs. the non-Freudian approaches to personality.
Three influential followers of Freud who later broke with him were Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, and Karen Horney. Known as non-Freudians, they emphasized different issues. Adler emphasized the inferiority complex and the compensating will-to-power. Jung introduced the collective unconscious and archetypes. Horney stressed the important of basic anxiety and refuted Freud’s idea of penis envy, replacing it with power envy.
13.8 Discuss the major criticisms of psychoanalytic theories of personality.
Critics of the psychoanalytic approach, especially Freud’s theories, argue that the approach is difficult to test, overemphasizes biology and unconscious forces, has inadequate empirical support, is sexist, and lacks cross-cultural support. Despite these criticisms, Freud remains a notable pioneer in psychology.
13.9 Discuss humanistic theories of personality, comparing the approaches of Rogers and Maslow.
Humanistic theories focus on internal experiences (thoughts and feelings) and the individual’s self-concept. Carl Rogers emphasized mental health, congruence, self-esteem, and unconditional positive regard. Abraham Maslow emphasized the potential for self-actualization.
13.10 What are the major criticisms of humanistic theories of personality?
Critics of the humanistic approach argue that these theories are based on naive assumptions and are not scientifically testable or well supported by empirical evidence. In addition, their focus on description, rather than explanation, makes them narrow.
13.11 Discuss the social-cognitive perspective on personality, comparing Bandura and Rotter’s approaches.
Social cognitive theories emphasize the importance of our interactions with the environment and how we interpret and respond to these external events. Albert Bandura’s social-cognitive approach focuses on self-efficacy and reciprocal determinism. Julian Rotter emphasizes cognitive expectancies and an internal or external locus of control.
13.12 What are the major strengths and weaknesses of the social-cognitive theories?
Social-cognitive theories are credited for their attention to environmental influences and their scientific standards. However, they have been criticized for their narrow focus and lack of attention to the unconscious, environmental, and emotional components of personality.
13.13 How does biology contribute to personality?
Biological theories emphasize brain structure, neurochemistry, and inherited genetic components of personality. Research on specific traits, such as extroversion and sensation seeking, support the biological approach.
13.14 Describe how the biopsychosocial model blends various approaches to personality.
The biopsychosocial approach suggests that the major theories overlap and that each contributes to our understanding of personality.
13.15 How to psychologists measure personality?
Psychologists use four basic methods to measure or assess personality:i nterviews, observations, objective tests, and projective techniques.
Interviews and observations can provide insights into a wide variety of behaviors and personality traits. Interviews can be either structured or unstructured. During observations, the rater looks for examples of specific behaviors and follows a careful set of evaluation guidelines.
13.16 Describe the key advantages and disadvantages of personality measurement.
Both interviews and observations can provide valuable insights into personality but they are time-consuming and expensive, raters frequently disagree, and they often involve unnatural settings. Objective tests provide specific, objective information but they are limited because of deliberate deception and social desirability bias, diagnostic difficulties, and possible cultural bias. Projective tests are time-consuming and have quesitonable reliability and valididty. However, because they are unstructured, respondents may be more willing to talk honestly about sensitive topics, and projective tests are harder to fake.
13.17 List the three major fallacies associated with pseudo-personality tests.
The Barnum effect, the fallacy of positive instances, and the self-serving bias are the three most important fallacies of pseudo-personality tests.
archetypes
According to Jung, the images and patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that reside in the collective unconscious.
basic anxiety
according to Horney, the feelings of helplessness and insecurity that adults experience because as children they felt alone and isolated in a hostile environment
