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Biology module 2 > 2.2 Biological molecules > Flashcards

2.2 Biological molecules Flashcards

1
Q

what is a condensation reaction

A

reaction that occurs when two molecules are joined together with the removal of water

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2
Q

What is a hydrolysis reaction?

A

Reaction that occurs when a molecule is split into two smaller molecules with the addition of water

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3
Q

What is a covalent bond?

A

when 2 non metals share a pair of electrons

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4
Q

What is a monomer?

A

A small molecule which binds to many other identical molecules to form a polymer

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5
Q

what is a polymer?

A

a large molecule made from many smaller molecules called monomers

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6
Q

what are the 3 types of molecules?

A

carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids

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7
Q

what is a monomer of a carbohydrate called

A

monosaccharide

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8
Q

what is an example of a monosaccharide

A

glucose

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9
Q

what is a polymer of a carbohydrate called

A

polysaccharide

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10
Q

example of polysaccharide

A

starch, glycogen, cellulose

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11
Q

what is a monomer of a protein called

A

amino acid

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12
Q

what is a polymer of proteins called

A

polypeptide

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13
Q

what is a monomer of a nucleic acid called

A

nucleotide

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14
Q

what is a polymer of a nucleic acid called

A

DNA and RNA

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15
Q

what are carbohydrates

A

a group of molecules containing C, H and O

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16
Q

what are the three main groups of carbohydrates

A

monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

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17
Q

what are the properties of monosaccharides

A

sweet, soluble in water and insoluble in non-polar solvents

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18
Q

what is alpha glucose and beta glucose

A

an energy source

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19
Q

how is the displayed formula of alpha glucose different to beta glucose

A

In alpha glucose, on carbon 1 the hydroxyl group is below the ring structure and hydrogen is above. In beta glucose, on carbon 1 the hydroxyl group is above the ring structure and they hydrogen is below the ring structure

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20
Q

how is ribose different to glucose

A

it is a pentose sugar rather than a hexose sugar. It found in RNA and is not an energy source

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21
Q

when dissolved in a solution, how do triose and tetrose sugars exist

A

straight chains

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22
Q

when dissolved in a solution, how do pentose and hexose sugars tend to exist

A

In a ring or cyclic structure

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23
Q

What is an isomer?

A

molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures

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24
Q

what are examples of dissacharides

A

maltose, sucrose, lactose

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25
Q

what are the properties of dissacharides

A

sweet and soluble in water and insoluble in non-polar solvents

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26
Q

What are the reducing sugars?

A

maltose and lactose

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27
Q

what are the non-reducing sugars

A

sucrose

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28
Q

What is a glycosidic bond?

A

A bond formed between two monosaccharides by a condensation reaction

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29
Q

How is a dissacharide formed?

A

Two monosaccharides join in condensation reaction forming a 1-4 glycosidic bond between the two hydroxyl groups and give off water

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30
Q

how is a disaccharide broken

A

hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond with addition of water

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31
Q

how are polysaccharides formed

A

a series of condensation reactions, water is given off each time a glycosidic bond is formed

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32
Q

what are polysaccharides made of one type of monosaccharide called

A

homopolysaccharide

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33
Q

where is starch found in plant cells

A

starch granules

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34
Q

what is amylose

A

a series of alpha glucose monomers joined by glycosidic bonds between carbons 1 and 4

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35
Q

what structure is amylose and what does it present

A

it forms a spiral shape and it presents a hydrophobic external surface

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36
Q

what is amylopectin

A

series of alpha glucose monomers which are joined by glycosidic bonds between carbon 1 and 4 as well as carbon 1 and 6

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37
Q

what is the structure of amylopectin

A

coils into a spiral shape with branches emerging from the spiral

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38
Q

what is the function of starch

A

energy store in plants

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39
Q

what are the two parts of starch

A

amylose and amylopectin

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40
Q

why is the branch structure of amylopectin important

A

it allows more alpha glucose molecules to be broken off when its needed for respiration

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41
Q

What is the structure of starch

A

coiled into double helix so its compact, held by hydrogen bonds, OH groups stored inside

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42
Q

why are OH groups stored on the inside of starch

A

so they aren’t soluble and don’t affect the water potential

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43
Q

what enzyme breaks 1-4 glycosidic bonds

A

amylase

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44
Q

what enzyme breaks 1-6 glycosidic bonds

A

glycosidase

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45
Q

where is glycogen found

A

glycogen granules in animals

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46
Q

structure of glycogen

A

similar to amylopectin but more branched. 1–4 and 1–6 glycosidic bonds. coiled

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47
Q

what is glycogen

A

energy store in animals

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48
Q

why is glycogen more branched than amylopectin

A

animals are more metabolically active and need more glucose for energy for respiration. As its more branched, easy access for enzymes to hydrolyse bonds to obtain alpha glucose

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49
Q

what is an advantage of a coiled structure

A

its more compact so more can be stored

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50
Q

what is starch and glycogen made of

A

alpha glucose

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51
Q

Where is cellulose found?

A

plant cell walls

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52
Q

what is cellulose made of

A

beta glucose

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53
Q

what are the bonds in cellulose

A

glycosidic bond on carbons 1-4. Every other beta glucose monomer, it rotates by 180* as on carbon 4 the OH group is below the ring structure and on carbon 1 the OH group is above the ring structure

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54
Q

what happens as a result of rotations

A

it causes hydrogen bonding between the oxygens which gives the chain additional strength and stops it from spiralling. OH group on carbon 2 sticks out which causes hydrogen bonding to form between chains

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55
Q

what forms microfibrils

A

60-70 chains of cellulose

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56
Q

what forms macrofibrils

A

up to 400 microfibrils

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57
Q

what do macrofibrils do

A

criss-cross for extra strength for the cell wall

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58
Q

function of cellulose

A

to have strength and support the whole plant

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59
Q

why is there space between macrofibrils

A

so water and mineral ions can pass in and out

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60
Q

advantage of cell wall being strong

A

prevents plant cells from bursting when they’re turgid

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61
Q

what are the substances that make the cell wall waterproof

A

cutin and Suberin

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62
Q

what are some other structural polysaccharides

A

bacterial cell walls and exoskeletons

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63
Q

what is a hydrogen bond

A

the attraction between a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge and another atom with a partial negative charge

64
Q

benefit of having many hydrogen bonds

A

helps stabilise the structure of some biological molecules

65
Q

why is water polar

A

the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the 2 hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge

66
Q

why can water flow easily

A

has a low viscosity

67
Q

benefits of water being liquid at room temp

A

provide habitats for living things in bodies of water

form a major component of tissues in living organisms

provide an effective transport medium

68
Q

why is ice less dense than water

A

because of its polar nature, water molecules align themselves in a structure which is less dense than water

69
Q

benefits of water being less dense than ice

A

aquatic organisms have a stable environment through winter

bodies of water are insulated against extreme cold-ice reduces heat loss

70
Q

benefits of water being good solvent

A

medium for reactions

allows ionic compounds to seperate

able to dilute toxic substances

organisms can absorb minerals

71
Q

benefits of cohesion and surface tension on water

A

columns of water in plant vascular tissue are pulled up the xylem tissue

insects like pond skaters can walk on water

72
Q

why is high specific heat capacity important for water

A

living things need a stable temperature for enzyme controlled reactions to work properly

aquatic organisms need a stable environment to live

73
Q

Why is a high latent heat of vaporisation useful for living organisms?

A

cools living things and keeps their temperature stable

74
Q

why is water being a reactant important

A

important for digestion and synthesis of large biological molecules

75
Q

differences between cellulose and glycogen

A

glycogen branches cellulose isnt

monomer is alpha glucose is glycogen monomer in cellulose is beta glucose

cellulose glucose molecules rotate glycogen dont

cellulose molecules dont spiral glycogen does

glycogen has 1-4 and 1-6 bonds and cellulose only 1-4

76
Q

components of a triglyceride

A

1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids

77
Q

bonds in triglyceride

A

ester bonds, happens through condensation reaction

78
Q

how many ester bonds are in a triglyceride

A

3

79
Q

what does it mean if a fatty acid is monounsaturated

A

double bond which causes kink in tail

80
Q

functions of triglycerides

A

Energy source- can be broken down in respiration to release energy

Energy store- they are insoluble in water so can be stored without affecting the water potential

Insulation-lipids in nerve cells act as an electrical insulator

Buoyancy-fat is less dense than water, aquatic mammals can stay afloat

Protection-humans have fat around delicate organs to act as a shock absorber

81
Q

properties of triglycerides

A

insoluble in water

soluble in ethanol

larger molecule

not a polymer

82
Q

why are triglycerides not polymers

A

1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids and you cannot keep adding more monomers as you would in a polysaccharide

83
Q

what is saturated

A

when all single bonds

84
Q

difference between monounsaturated fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid

A

mono- one fatty w double bond
poly- two or more w double bond

85
Q

what does having more double bonds do

A

lowers boiling point

86
Q

components of triglycerides

A

C H O

87
Q

components of phospholipid

A

glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphate group

88
Q

bonds in phospholipid

A

2 ester bonds and 1 phosphate ester bond

89
Q

how many lots of water does a condensation reaction in a phospholipid give off

A

3

90
Q

define amphipathic

A

having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions

91
Q

how do phospholipids arrange themselves in water

A

heads are in the water and the tails are sticking out or form tiny balls where the tails are inside and the heads are pointing outwards

92
Q

why are phospholipids good in membranes

A

they arrange in a specific way that gives the membrane stability and as the membrane is selectively permeable, it lets it controls what goes in and out

93
Q

components of cholesterol

A

4 carbon-bases rings

94
Q

what is cholesterol

A

a steroid alcohol

95
Q

what is cholesterol like

A

small and hydrophobic, sits in the middle part of the bilayer

96
Q

what does cholesterol regulate

A

the fluidity of the membrane, preventing it from being too fluid or too stiff

97
Q

examples of steroid hormones made of cholesterol

A

testosterone, oestrogen and vitamin D

98
Q

difference between triglyceride and phospholipid

A

phospholipid has phosphate group, Tri doesnt

P has 2 fatty acids, Tri has 3

99
Q

similarities of triglycerides and phospholipid

A

they have one glycerol and are joined by ester bonds

100
Q

general structure of amino acid

A

amino group, R group, carboxyl group

101
Q

what are components of amino acids

A

C, H, O, N and sometimes S

102
Q

What differentiates one amino acid from another?

A

r group

103
Q

what would the amino acid be if the R group was H

A

glycine

104
Q

why can amino acids act as buffers

A

amino group can accept H+ ions (when PH too acidic) and carboxyl group can give off H+ ions (when PH is too high)

105
Q

bonds in proteins

A

peptide bonds

106
Q

different structures of proteins

A

primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

107
Q

primary structure of protein

A

sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds

108
Q

bonds and structure of secondary structure of protein

A

alpha helix or beta pleated sheet
peptide and hydrogen bonds

109
Q

tertiary structure of protein and bonds

A

when coils and pleats fold
peptide, hydrogen , disulphide, ionic and hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions

110
Q

what are hydrogen bonds between

A

slightly positive hydrogen and slightly negative atoms

111
Q

what are disulphide links between

A

r groups of 2 cysteines

112
Q

what are ionic bonds between

A

carboxyl and amino group that are part of the R group

113
Q

describe hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions

A

hydrophobic parts of R groups avoid water, hydrophilic parts are near water. This causes the amino acid chain to twist which changes the shape of the protein

114
Q

describe quaternary structure of a protein and bonds

A

more than 2 tertiary structures put together
peptide, hydrogen, ionic, disulfide, hydrophilic and hydrophobic

115
Q

similarities of peptide and glycosidic bonds

A

form thru condensation break thru hydrolysis

116
Q

differences of peptide and glycosidic bonds

A

peptide in proteins between C and N, glycosidic in carbohydrates between C-O-C

117
Q

what are fibrous proteins

A

structural proteins which have regular repetitive sequences of amino acids and are insoluble in water

118
Q

examples of fibrous proteins

A

collagen, keratin, elastin

119
Q

What is every 3rd amino acid in collagen?

A

glycine

120
Q

how does collagen provide mechanical strength

A

collagen in artery walls prevents them from bursting, tendons connect muscles to bones, bones, cartilage and connective tissue are made of collagen

121
Q

structure of collagen

A

long and thin

122
Q

what is keratin rich in

A

cysteine

123
Q

what makes keratin strong

A

disulphide links and hydrogen bonding

124
Q

what does keratin provide

A

mechanical protection and an impermeable barrier to infection

125
Q

what does keratin prevent

A

entry of water-borne pollutants

126
Q

what makes elastin strong

A

cross-linking and coiling of the structure

127
Q

where is elastin found

A

In living things where they need to stretch or adapt their shape as part of life processes

128
Q

what does elastin allow

A

skin to stretch around bones and muscle, lungs to inflate and deflate, bladder expand to hold urine, blood vessels to stretch and recoil as blood is pumped through

129
Q

define globular proteins

A

proteins that are water soluble and have specific shapes so they can take up roles as enzymes

130
Q

examples of globular proteins

A

haemoglobin, insulin, pepsin

131
Q

what is haemoglobin made of

A

4 polypeptide chains (2 alpha and 2 beta chains)

132
Q

what gives haemoglobin its specific shape

A

interactions between polypeptides

133
Q

what does each chain of haemoglobin have

A

haem group (iron ion)

134
Q

what does haemoglobin do

A

Binds to oxygen to transport it from the lungs to the tissues and cells

135
Q

where does oxygen bind

A

iron in each of the 4 harm groups

136
Q

what is insulin made of

A

2 polypeptide chains ( chain A begins with alpha helix, chain B ends w B pleat)

137
Q

how does insulin assist with the movement of glucose into body cells

A

It binds to glycoprotein receptors on the outside of muscle and fat cells to increase their uptake of glucose from the blood and to increase their rate of consumption of glucose

138
Q

why is insulin soluble

A

amino acids with hydrophilic r groups are on the outside

139
Q

what is pepsin

A

protein digesting enzyme

140
Q

what is pepsin made of

A

single polypeptide chain of 327 amino acids

141
Q

what amino acids has pepsin got

A

4 with basic r groups, 43 with acidic r groups

142
Q

where is pepsin stable

A

acidic environment in stomach

143
Q

how is tertiary structure of pepsin held

A

hydrogen bonds and 2 disulphide bridges

144
Q

how can scientists predict protein shapes

A

computer modelling

145
Q

what can predicting the occurrence of biologically active binding sites help with

A

identifying new medicines

146
Q

what are the 2 broad approaches of computer modelling

A

AB initio protein modelling

comparative protein modelling

147
Q

food test for starch and positive result

A

iodine
colour change from yellow to blue/black

148
Q

test for reducing sugars and positive result

A

heat sugar w Benedicts solution
colour change from blue to green to yellow to orange

149
Q

test for non-reducing sugars and positive result

A

boil with hydrochloric acid to hydrolyse then cool it and use sodium hydrogen carbonate to neutralise and test for reducing sugar again
colour change from blue to green to yellow to orange

150
Q

test for lipids and positive result

A

mix sample with ethanol, filter it then pour into water in a clean tube
solution turns cloudy white

151
Q

test for proteins and positive result

A

biuret test
turns from light blue to lilac

152
Q

define stationary phase

A

paper ( can be chromatography paper or thin layer chromatography)

153
Q

define mobile phase

A

solvent

154
Q

equation for RF value

A

Distance travelled by substance / distance travelled by solvent

155
Q

aim of chromatography

A

to separate a mixture into its constituents

156
Q

what do you do if you cannot see where a colourless molecule has finished

A

ultra violet light, spray ninhydrin, place in enclose container with iodine cristals

157
Q

what can chromatography be used for

A

testing for drugs ,analysis of drugs for purity of components and analysis of foods to determine presence of contaminants

Biology module 2 (6 decks)

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