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Biology: AQA A Level > 2.4 Cell Recognition & Immune System > Flashcards

2.4 Cell Recognition & Immune System Flashcards

1
Q

Why is there a series of responses when a pathogen enters a body?

A

(So pathogen) is rapidly identified;

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2
Q

What is a pathogen rapidly identified as?

A

Non self;

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3
Q

When the pathogen is rapidly identified as non self, what happens to the pathogen?

A

Destroyed;

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4
Q

A pathogen is destroyed before it can cause too much damage to who?

A

Affected organism;

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5
Q

State two ways pathogens cause harm/disease.

A

Produce toxins;
Replicate in cells;

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6
Q

Why does producing toxins cause harm/disease?

A

Damages tissue;

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7
Q

Which type of pathogen replicates in cells?

A

Viruses;

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8
Q

What does replication in cells cause the cell to do?

A

Lysis of cell;

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9
Q

Where on each type of cell do they have specific molecules that identify it?

A

Cell-surface membrane;

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10
Q

What do the specific molecules on the cell-surface membrane include?

A

Proteins;

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11
Q

What do proteins on the cell-surface membrane enable the immune system to do?

A

Identify it;

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12
Q

How do other organisms cause an immune response?

A

(Cells from) other organisms of the same species (identified)

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13
Q

Where can cells from other organisms of the same species come from?

A

Transplants;

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14
Q

What are some examples of abnormal body cells?

A

Cancer/tumour;

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15
Q

What organism secretes toxins?

A

Pathogenic bacteria;

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16
Q

What are cells infected by?

A

Viruses;

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17
Q

Give five types of cell that simulate an immune response;

A

Pathogens;
Other organisms;
Abnormal body cells;
Toxins
Infected cells;

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18
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A molecule(usually a protein);

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19
Q

What does an antigen stimulate?

A

An immune response;

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20
Q

What does an immune response result in?

A

Production of specific antibody;

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21
Q

What are the surface of all own/foreign cells covered in?

A

Specifically shaped antigens;

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22
Q

What do specifically shaped antigens help identify to the host cell?

A

Each particular type of cell;

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23
Q

What do specifically shaped antigens help identify antigens as?

A

Non self;

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24
Q

What do cells that are identified as non-self initiate?

A

An immune response;

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25
Q

What does an immune response lead to the destruction of?

A

Cell/pathogen/protein;

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26
Q

Give two examples of antigens.

A

Glycoproteins;
Glycolipids;

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27
Q

What are phagocytes?

A

Groups of white blood cells;

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28
Q

What can phagocytes do?

A

Distinguish between cells;

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29
Q

What do phagocytes distinguish between?

A

Cells displaying/not displaying self-antigens;

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30
Q

What will phagocytes do to any cell that presents a non-self-antigen?

A

Engulf and destroy;

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31
Q

What are phagocytes capable of detecting?

A

Chemical signals;

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32
Q

Which organism produces chemical signals?

A

Pathogens;

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33
Q

Early in an infection, what do phagocytes move to?

A

Site of infection;

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34
Q

Once the phagocyte has moved to the site of infection, what do they do to pathogens?

A

Engulf and hydrolyse;

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35
Q

Is Phagocytosis of pathogens specific or non-specific immunity?

A

Non-specific;

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36
Q

How does phagocytosis work for any cell/pathogen that displays a non-self antigen?

A

Same (so non-specific);

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37
Q

What is the phagocyte attracted to the pathogen by?

A

Chemical products;

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37
Q

It would take far too long to destroy all invading pathogens by phagocytosis in the event of an infection.
What is a more efficient system that phagocytosis?

A

Specific immunity systems;

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37
Q

What do specific immunity systems prevent the damage of?

A

Tissues and organs;

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37
Q

What does the phagocyte move towards the pathogen along?

A

Concentration gradient;

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38
Q

What does the phagocyte have several of on its cell-surface-membrane?

A

Receptors

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39
Q

What do receptors on the phagocyte cell-surface-membrane attach to?

A

Chemicals on the surface of the pathogen;

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40
Q

What is the pathogen engulfed by?

A

Phagocyte;

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41
Q

How does the engulfed pathogen enter the cytoplasm of the cell?

A

In a vesicle;

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42
Q

What is the name of when the pathogen is in a vesicle?

A

Phagosome;

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43
Q

What do lysosomes fuse wih?

A

Phagosome;

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44
Q

What is released by lysosomes when they fuse with the phagosome?

A

Hydrolytic digestive enzymes;

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45
Q

What are hydrolytic digestive enzymes known as?

A

Lysozymes;

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46
Q

What do lysosome enzymes do to the pathogen?

A

Hydrolyse pathogen;

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47
Q

How are waste materials ejected from the cell?

A

Exocytosis;

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48
Q

What do antigens presenting on the cell surface membrane and the phagocyte become?

A

An antigen presenting cell;

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49
Q

What is a specific response?

A

(Response to) specific antigen;

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50
Q

Where is the specific antigen located?

A

Surface of cell;
Pathogen;

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51
Q

What has the pathogen been recognised as in order to cause a specific response from a specific antigen?

A

Non-self;

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52
Q

What is a cellular response?

A

Specific;

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53
Q

What cell is associated with cell mediated immunity?

A

T Lymphocytes;

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54
Q

Is cell mediated immunity primary or secondary?

A

Primary;

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55
Q

What can specific T Helper cells respond directly to?

A

A specific pathogen or its antigens;

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56
Q

How do antigen presenting cells present their antigens?

A

Specifically complementary;

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57
Q

What do presented specifically complementary antigens present their antigen to?

A

Receptors;

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58
Q

Where does the antigen presenting cell present the pathogen’s antigen?

A

Cell-surface-membrane;

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59
Q

What can antigens also be presented by, other than phagocytes and pathogens?

A

Infected body cells;

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60
Q

What can T Helper cells also detect?

A

Faulty antigens;

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61
Q

Where are faulty antigens located?

A

On abnormal cells;

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62
Q

What T Helper cells can bind to specific antigens?

A

(T Helper cells with )Specific receptor molecules;

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63
Q

What happens when T Helper cells bind to a presented antigen?

A

(It is) Activated;

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64
Q

Once an antigen presenting cell is activated by binding to specific receptor molecule, what happens?

A

Rapidly clones by mitosis;

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65
Q

Steps to Antigen Presenting Cellular response?

A

1) Phagocytosis creates Antigen Presenting Cell;
2) T Helper cell with specific receptor molecule binds to presented antigen
3) Activated; mitosis

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66
Q

What are the two steps in cell mediated response?

A
  1. Antigen presenting;
  2. Clonal Selection;
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67
Q

In clonal selection, what does a specific T Helper cell bind to?

A

Presented antigen;

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68
Q

In clonal selection, how does a specific T Helper cell bind to a presented antigen?

A

Via complementary receptor;

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69
Q

In clonal selection, what happens to an activated T Helper cell?

A

Clones;

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70
Q

In clonal selection, what type of T Helper cells are produced?

A

(T Helper cells with) Complementary receptors to the antigen;

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71
Q

When a specific T Helper cell has been activated, which cells do the cloned daughter cells differentiate into?

A

T Helper
Cytotoxic T
B
Memory

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72
Q

What do T Helper cells bind to?

A

Antigen presenting cell;

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73
Q

What do T Helper Cells release that attract phagocytes to the area of infection?

A

Cytokines;

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74
Q

What do released (by T Helper Cells) cytokines activate?

A

Cytotoxic Killer T cell(s);

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75
Q

What to T Helper Cells activate?

A

Specifically complementary B cell;

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76
Q

What do T Helper cells form?

A

Memory cells;

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77
Q

What do Cytotoxic Killer T Cells do to infected body cells?

A

Locate and destroy;

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78
Q

What do infected body cells present?

A

Correct antigen;

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79
Q

What do Cytotoxic Killer T Cells bind to?

A

Antigen-presenting-cells;

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80
Q

What do Cytotoxic Killer T Cells release?

A

Perforin;

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81
Q

What is Perforin?

A

A protein;

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82
Q

What is the function of Perforin?

A

Creates holes in cell surface membrane;

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83
Q

What does creating holes in the cell surface membrane (Perforin) do the antigen presenting cell?

A

Destroys;

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84
Q

What is the activation of B Cells also known as?

A

Humoral response;

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85
Q

What is the humoral reponse?

A

Activation of B Cells;

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86
Q

Is the Humoral response primary or secondary?

A

Primary;

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87
Q

What does the activation of B Cells produce?

A

Antibodies;

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88
Q

What does a specific T Helper cell with the correct receptor bind to?

A

Presented antigen;

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89
Q

Once a specific T Helper cell with the correct receptor binds to a presented antigen, what does the activated T Helper Cell do?

A

Locates and activates a specifically complementary B cell;

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90
Q

What chemicals do T Helper cells release?

A

Cytokines;

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91
Q

What do cytokines signal?

A

Clonal selection;

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92
Q

What is clonal selection?

A

Specific cells cloning by mitosis;

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93
Q

What two cells do B cells differentiates into?

A

Plasma
Memory (B)

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94
Q

What do plasma cells produce and secrete vast quantities of?

A

Specific antibodies;

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95
Q

Where are specific antibodies secreted into?

A

Blood plasma

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96
Q

Where do Memory B Cells remain?

A

In the body;

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97
Q

Why do Memory B cells remain in the body?

A

Future re-infection;

98
Q

How do Memory B cells respond to a re-infection of a ptahogen?

A

Rapidly; Extensively;

99
Q

What is the whole process from initially recognising a pathogen as non-self, up to producing antibodies called?

A

Primary response;

100
Q

What is an antibody?

A

Protein made in response to a foreign antigen;

101
Q

What type of sites does antibodies have?

A

Binding sites;

102
Q

What do binding sites do on an anitbody?

A

Bind specifically to an antigen;

103
Q

What produces a specific antibody?

A

Specific B Plasma cells;

104
Q

What type of protein structure do antibodies have?

A

Quaternary;

105
Q

How many polypeptide chains are antibodies made from?

A

Four;

106
Q

What is the overall shape of an antibody?

A

Y-shaped;

107
Q

What is the main part of the antibody that is the same in all antibodies?

A

Constant region;

108
Q

What regions have a different primary structure and therefor a different tertiary structure?

A

Variable regions;

109
Q

Why is the binding site specific for each antibody?

A

(Due to) variable region;

110
Q

How many antigens are specific antibodies complementary to?

A

Only one;

111
Q

What is the epitope part of the antigen?

A

Binds to antigen binding site (on the antibody);

112
Q

What forms when due to their specific binding sites, antibodies only bind to specific antigens?

A

Permanent antigen-antibody-complex;

113
Q

Where the antigen binding site located?

A

Top of Y;

114
Q

Where is the variable constant located?

A

Between Y/antigen binding sites;

115
Q

What are the two types of the chain antibodies are made from?

A

Heavy and Light;

116
Q

Where is the receptor binding site located?

A

Bottom of Y;

117
Q

Name the five components of Antibodies.

A

Antigen binding site;
Variable constant;
Light Chain;
Heavy Chain;
Receptor Binding Site;

118
Q

What is does agglutination cause antibody-antigen complexes to do?

A

Clump together;

119
Q

What does opsonisation mark so phagocytes recognise and the destroy the pathogen more efficiently?

A

Marks pathogen;

120
Q

Antibodies bind to antigens and leads to the destruction of pathogen’s membrane.
What is this process describing?

A

Lysis;

121
Q

What do antibodies bind to, to prevent the bound molecules from binding to their complementary target receptors?

A

Toxins or Venom;

122
Q

What do toxins/venom bind to if not bound to by antibodies?

A

Complementary target molecules?

123
Q

What do antibodies prevent the replication of?

A

Pathogens;

124
Q

How do antibodies assist the destruction of pathogens?

A

Agglutination;
Opsonisation;
Lysis;
Anti-toxins & Anti-Venom;
Prevent pathogen replication;

125
Q

What response are memory cells apart of?

A

Secondary;

126
Q

What are memory cells not directly involved in?

A

Destroying the invading pathogen;

127
Q

Where do memory cells remain in case of future re-infection by the same pathogen?

A

In circulation;

128
Q

What are memory cells rapidly activated by, if the same antigen is encountered?

A

By cytokines;

129
Q

How are memory cells divided rapidly?

A

By mitosis;

130
Q

What do genetically identical cloned memory cells differentiate into?

A

Plasma;
More Memory B;

131
Q

What do the plasma cells produce vast numbers of?

A

Specific antibodies;

132
Q

What are the vast numbers of specific antibodies produced for?

A

Invading pathogen;

133
Q

How long is the period of time it takes for vast number of specific antibodies (for the invading pathogen) to be produced?

A

Short;

134
Q

What is the secondary response?

A

Activation of memory cells to produce antibodies;

135
Q

What is the secondary response both?

A

Rapid ;Extensive;

136
Q

When is an antigen normally eliminated?

A

Before disease/symptoms;

137
Q

What may gene mutations in a pathogen lead to a change in?

A

Tertiary structure(of antigens specific to the B cell);

138
Q

Will the memory B cell antibodies be complementary to the mutated pathogen with a changed tertiary structure?

A

No;

139
Q

What will not form if the memory B cells are no longer complementary to the mutated antigen?

A

Antigen-antibody complexes;

140
Q

When no antigen-antibody complexes form due to a mutated pathogen, with a different tertiary structure, what response is not able to be intiated?

A

Secondary;

141
Q

What is the change in tertiary structure of an antigen known as?

A

Antigenic variability;

142
Q

What is difficult to develop due to antigenic variability?

A

Vaccines;

143
Q

Why is immunity important?

A

Some pathogens can be fatal;

144
Q

Does Passive Immunity have exposure to antigen?

A

No

145
Q

Does Passive Immunity have antibodies given?

A

Yes

146
Q

Where can antibodies be given from?

A

Mother; antiserum;

147
Q

Is Passive Immunity short term?

A

Yes;

148
Q

Is Passive Immunity slow acting?

A

No;

149
Q

Does Active Immunity have exposure to antigen?

A

Yes;

150
Q

Are antibodies produced in Active Immunity?

A

Yes;

151
Q

Are memory cells produced in Active Immunity?

A

Yes;

152
Q

How long does active immunity take to develop?

A

Longer time (than passive);

153
Q

What form of antigens from pathogens do vaccines contain?

A

Dead;
Weakened;
Attenuated;

154
Q

When a vaccination occurs, what happens to the antigens from pathogens?

A

Steps of primary response from pathogen entering - to memory cells produced for re-infection;

155
Q

Why are vaccines sometimes not effective?

A

Antigenic variability;

156
Q

What can vaccines cause that are mild?

A

Side effects;

157
Q

In some individuals, what side effects may result in complications?

A

Severe permanent effects;

158
Q

What percentage of a population should be vaccinated, for herd immunity?

A

85%;

159
Q

What is there little chance of a disease doing if enough are vaccinated?

A

Spreading;

160
Q

Who else is protected if the disease has very little chance of spreading?

A

Non-vaccinated individuals;

161
Q

State six ethical issues of vaccines;

A

Animal Testing
Human Testing;
Cost/Availability
Side effects;
Compulsion;
Loss of genetic variability;

162
Q

What are antibodies made from?

A

Specific protein molecules;

163
Q

Where do antibodies bind specifically?

A

ONE antigen molecule;

164
Q

What does the ability of antibodies to bind specifically to one antigen give them important uses in?

A

Medical;
Industrial;

165
Q

Why are tests using monoclonal antibodies specific?

A

Primary;
Tertiary;
Complementary (to one antigen);

166
Q

Give an example of immuno assays.

A

Pregnancy testing kits;
ELISA;
HIV diagnosis;

167
Q

What is diagnosis?

A

Showing the presence of a particular antigen;

168
Q

Give an example of monoclonal antibodies with a drug, being used to kill specific cells, attaching to them;

A

Tumour cells;

169
Q

What do tumour cells have on their surface?

A

Tumour proteins;

170
Q

What can monoclonal antibodies be used to isolate?

A

Specific chemicals;

171
Q

Give six ways monoclonal antibodies can be used.

A

Research;
Immuno assays;
Diagnosis;
Targeting drugs;
Killing specific cells;
Isolating specific chemicals;

172
Q

What is the indirect ELISA test used to test for the presence of?

A

Antibody;

173
Q

What is the sandwich ELISA test used to test for the presence of?

A

Antigen;

174
Q

What does each clone of plasma produce?

A

Only one type of antibody;

175
Q
  1. What type of well is used in an indirect ELISA test?
A

Antigen-coated well;

176
Q
  1. What binds to the antigen in an indirect ELISA test?
A

Specific antibody;

177
Q
  1. What binds to a specific antibody in an indirect ELISA test?
A

Enzyme-linked antibody;

178
Q
  1. What is added to the vessel in an indirect ELISA test?
A

Substrate;

179
Q
  1. What happens to the substrate in an indirect ELISA test?
A

Converted by enzyme

180
Q
  1. What is the enzyme converted into in an indirect ELISA test?
A

Coloured product;

181
Q
  1. What is the rate of colour formation proportional to in an indirect ELISA test??
A

Amount of specific antibody;

182
Q

What happens between each step (1.-2.-3.-4.) in an indirect ELISA test?

A

Washed;

183
Q

Why is there washes between each step?

A

Remove unbound secondary antibodies;

184
Q
  1. What type of well is used in an sandwich ELISA test?
A

Antibody-coated well;

185
Q
  1. What is added to the vessel to be measured in an sandwich ELISA test?
A

Antigen;

186
Q
  1. What is added to the vessel after the antigen in an sandwich ELISA test?
A

Enzyme-conjugated secondary antibody;

187
Q
  1. What is finally added into the vessel in an sandwich ELISA test?
A

Substrate;

188
Q
  1. What is measured in an sandwich ELISA test?
A

Colour;

189
Q

What happens between each step (1.-2.-3.-4.) in an sandwich ELISA test?

A

Washed;

190
Q

What does HIV stand for?

A

Human Immunodeficiency Virus;

191
Q

What causes the disease AIDS?

A

HIV;

192
Q

What does AIDS stand for?

A

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome;

193
Q
  1. What do attachment proteins bind with in HIV replication?
A

Protein receptors;

194
Q
  1. Where are protein receptors commonly found?
A

T Helper Cells;

195
Q
  1. What does the capsid fuse with in HIV replication?
A

Cell-surface membrane;

196
Q

What is released when the capsid fuses with cell-surface membrane?

A

Viral RNA and enzymes;

197
Q

Where are Viral RNA and enzymes released into?

A

T Helper cells;

198
Q
  1. What does the HIV’s reverse transcriptase convert viral RNA into in HIV replication?
A

Complementary DNA;

199
Q

What is used when reverse transcriptase is converted into viral RNA in HIV replication?

A

Host nucleotides;

200
Q

What is complementary DNA converted to?

A

Double stranded DNA;

201
Q

What is used when complementary DNA is converted into double stranded DNA?

A

DNA polymerase;

202
Q
  1. Where does viral complementary DNA move into?
A

Nucleus of T cell;

203
Q

Where is the nucleus of a T cell that contains viral complementary DNA inserted into?

A

Host cell genome;

204
Q

When is a person/cell infected?

A

When the nucleus of the T Cell is inserted into host cell genome;

205
Q
  1. What is transcripted into Viral mRNA in HIV replication?
A

Viral DNA;

206
Q

What happens to mRNA to produce HIV proteins in HIV replication?

A

Translated;

207
Q
  1. What do infected T Helper cells start to manufacture?
A

New HIV virions;

208
Q
  1. What do HIV virions break away from?
A

T Helper Cells

209
Q

What do HIV virions break away from T Helper cells with?

A

Sections of host cell surface membrane;

210
Q

What forms HIV virions cell lipid envelope?

A

Sections of host cell surface membrane;

211
Q

What is embedded in HIV virion lipid envelope?

A

T Helper receptor proteins;

212
Q

Why are there T Helper receptor proteins embedded into a HIV virion lipid envelope?

A

To gain access into more T Helper cells;

213
Q

Over time, what is reduced due to HIV?

A

Number of T Helper cells;

214
Q

How are the number of T Helper cells reduced by HIV virions?

A

Inactivated T Helper cells;

215
Q

Is AIDS a pathogen?

A

No;

216
Q

Can AIDS be detected using antigens or antibodies?

A

No;

217
Q

How can AIDS be screened for?

A

Checking number of T Helper cells;

218
Q

What is reduced due to HIV replicating by using the body’s T Helper cells?

A

Individual’s ability to respond to pathogens;

219
Q

What is compromised due to HIV that reduces an individual’s ability to respond to pathogens?

A

Cell mediated immunity;

220
Q

How many T Helper cells does an uninfected person have per mm-3 of blood?

A

800 to 1200;

221
Q

How many T Helper cells does a person suffering from AIDS have per mm-3 of blood?

A

Few as 200;

222
Q

What can be done to determine the HIV status of a patient?

A

Screening/ ELISA for HIV antibodies;

223
Q

What are HIV patients vulnerable to?

A

Secondary diseases;

224
Q

What do secondary diseases ultimately cause?

A

Death;

225
Q

What must be activated by specific T Helper cells to fight secondary diseases?

A

B memory cells;

226
Q

Why can’t B memory cells be activated by specific T Helper cells to fight secondary diseases?

A

T Helper cells have been destroyed;

227
Q

What do many AIDS suffers develop infections of?

A

Lungs, brain and eyes;

228
Q

What are some symptoms of AIDS?

A

Weight loss;
Diarrhoea;

229
Q

What is the genetic material of HIV?

A

RNA;

230
Q

What is the viral envelope made of?

A

Phospholipid;

231
Q

What type of proteins does HIV have?

A

Attachment;

232
Q

Name two structures in HIV.

A

Reverse transcriptase;
(Proteins) capsids;

233
Q

Name three structures of HIV.

A

RNA;
Phospholipid Envelope;
Attachment proteins;

234
Q

How do antibiotics work?

A

Preventing bacteria making a normal cell wall;

235
Q

What is a normal cell wall made from?

A

Murein/peptidoglycan;

236
Q

What do antibiotics target?

A

70s ribosomes;

237
Q

What are the cytoplasmic ribosomes made in Eukaryotes;

A

80s;

238
Q

What are bacteria unable to resist with no cell wall?

A

Osmotic pressure;

239
Q

Why do bacteria cells burst?

A

An increase in cell volume;

240
Q

What increases cell volume in a bacteria with damaged cell walls?

A

Volume of water by osmosis;

241
Q

What do viruses use to carry out metabolic activities?

A

Host cell organelles;

242
Q

What do viruses not have to disrupt?

A

Viral organelles;

243
Q

What is the protein coat found in bacteria called?

A

Capsid;

244
Q

What is the capsid in bacteria an alternative for?

A

Murein cell wall;

245
Q

Which pathogen that lacks a murein cell wall, means antibiotics do not work on it?

A

Viruses;

246
Q

Where do viruses spend most of their time, making them out of reach to antibitoics?

A

Within a host cell;

Biology: AQA A Level (29 decks)

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