Week 11 Reporting & Interpreting Qualitative Research

Question 1

What is Qualitative Research?

Answer 1

• Qualitative research utilises a wide variety of methods.
• QR interprets words & images from naturally occurring data with a preference for inductive, hypothesis-generating research rather than testing pre-designed hypotheses.
• In qualitative research ideas and evidence are mutually interdependent.

Question 2

Allport (1961) distinguished between two approaches to study human behaviour: nomothetic and idiographic. Tell me about Nomothetic

Answer 2

The nomothetic approach – attempts to formulate general principles of behaviour that will apply to most people, most of the time. This approach uses experimental and correlational research designs.

Question 3

Allport (1961) distinguished between two approaches to study human behaviour: nomothetic and idiographic. Tell me about Idiographic

Answer 3

The idiographic approach - of which the case study is an example - studies the behaviour of individuals rather than being interested in how people behave in general. This approach may be used to investigate rarely occurring phenomena and when properly employed is extremely useful as a research tool.

Question 4

Most qualitative research takes the case study or interview approach for data collection although there are other methods that are used.
Why must we be careful when using this type of data collection?

Answer 4

researchers must be cautious because cases never constitute a sample in the quantitative sense (inference of statistical generalisation to the population is not the aim of this type of method).

Question 5

What does Neuman (2000) say about qualitative research in the social sciences?

Answer 5

• The writing in the social sciences is a narrative.
• Typically analysis & interpretation distinguishes between descriptive studies & theoretical or conceptual studies
• • Descriptive studies are communicated through the data (e.g.: ethnographies, life histories, etc)
• • Theoretical studies are communicated through concepts illustrated by the data & most qualitative studies are directed to the construction of a theory.
• Thus, the purpose of qualitative research is the understanding or explanation of features of social life about the particular people/situations studied in particular contexts

Question 6

What are some of the qualities of Qualitative Social Research?

Answer 6

• Cultural meanings
• Focus on events
• Authenticity
• Merging between theory and data
• Situational
• Small n
• Thematic analysis

Question 7

What are the design steps in Research Processes that use the Qualitative Approach (hint, 3-7 are very similar to quantitative research steps)

Answer 7

1. Acknowledge the social self
2. Adopt Perspective
3. Design Study
4. Collect data
5. Analyse Data
6. Interpret Data
7. Inform Others

Question 8

What do I need to do when designing research using an interview format?

Answer 8

• I need to decide on the style of interview format & what sort of questions to ask
• Consider how I’ll gather information – taping, taking notes, etc.
• I need to transcribe the data with as much detail as possible, including the non-verbal information & gestures (gaps, etc)
• Finally, interpretation and analysis – coding, & mapping in a meaningful way – from a broad context decide how responses fit in with the style of interpretation I am going to undertake.
• I am applying a phenomenological approach.
• Consider whether I was trying to tap into the lived experience of the person being interviewed?

Question 9

When undertaking Qualitative Research, I need to decide on the interview format. What options do I have?

Answer 9

• Unstructured
• Structured
• Semi-structured

Remember each style has strengths and weaknesses.

Question 10

Tell me about an unstructured interview

Answer 10

• It has an opening statement that provides the interviewee with a starting point.
• Relies on spontaneous generation of questions in the natural flow of a conversation.
• Is appropriate when you want to have maximum flexibility - to be able to pursue questioning in whatever direction, depending on the information that emerges (therefore, it is not possible to have a predetermined set of questions).

Question 11

What are the strengths and weaknesses of unstructured interviews?

Answer 11

Strength = interviewer is flexible and responsive to individual differences, situational changes, and emerging information. 
Weakness = may lead to less systematic data that’s more difficult and time consuming to analyse.

Question 12

Tell me about a structured interview

Answer 12

A series of standardised questions delivered in a standardised manner (i.e., same questions are asked of each person, using the same words, in the same sequence).

Question 13

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a structured interviews?

Answer 13

Strength = useful if there are several interviewers and you want to reduce variation among them; when you want the same type of information from each person at several points in time and you want to compare among all interviewees; may be more cost effective; if there are time constraints; or if interviewers are inexperienced.
Weakness = cannot pursue topics that arise in the moment

Question 14

Tell me about a semi-structured interview

Answer 14

• There is a set of key questions to be covered in a flexible format, which involves the preparation of an interview guide with a set of pre-determined questions that are to be covered during an interview – BUT the order and wording of the questions doesn’t have to be definitive nor determined in advance.
• This guide serves as a checklist during the interview and means that basically the same information is obtained from a number of people.
• In this format the interviewer is free to pursue certain questions in greater depth.

Question 15

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a semi-structured interviews?

Answer 15

Strength = interviewing is more systematic (than unstructured), but still allows you to pursue issues important to each person; interview is still conversational.
Weakness = interviewer flexibility in wording and sequencing of questions may lead to substantially different responses from different persons, reducing comparability.

Question 16

How do I decide which interview is right for me?

Answer 16

I need to be clear on what it is you want to know

If I want to conduct this research to identify possible services and/or procedures that would help new students adjust to university life:

• For a semi-structured interview you need 3-5 questions, and an opening and closing statement.
• Consider what areas I could cover, based on 1st students’ experiences, in order to possibly improve the transition to university in future.

Question 17

How does timing differ between qualitative and quantitative research?

Answer 17

• In qualitative research the timing of analysis varies unlike quantitative research where analysis is conducted after data collection.
• It can follow a similar pattern to quantitative but more commonly data collection and analysis go hand in hand.
• During participant observation, in-depth interviews and other qualitative research, researchers are constantly theorizing and trying to make sense of their data.
• Researchers keep track of the emerging themes, reread their field notes &/or transcripts and develop concepts & propositions to begin to interpret their data.

Question 18

What does Sarantakos (2005) say about the interpretation process?

Answer 18

• Data is collected, coded, conceptually organised, analysed and evaluated.
• During the process themes interpretations and hunches emerge through corroboration of the informant’s stories.
• Progression from the initial data collection may be delayed so that preliminary frameworks can be refined to provide a better understanding of the data and facilitate further data gathering

Question 19

In order to attain a high level of abstraction and a ‘core category’ qualitative research involves 3 stages of coding, what are they?

Answer 19

1. Open Coding
2. Axial (or Theoretical) Coding
3. Selective Coding

Question 20

Tell me about Open Coding which is the first level of qualitative data analysis?

Answer 20

Open Coding involves:

• a close reading of the text to identify ‘first order concepts’
• ‘labelling’ pieces of data – where the ‘labels’ infer something about the data
• These ‘labels’ are referred to as ‘concepts’

Question 21

Stage 2, Axial (or Theoretical) coding requires concepts and categories to be developed - what are these and why are they important in this stage of data analysis?

Answer 21

• During this stage, first order concepts are turned into higher order concepts, or ‘categories’
• A category is a concept that is elaborated
• Concepts become subsumed under the umbrella of categories
• Categories have a higher level of theoretical sophistication than do concepts
• Categories are, analytically, more refined than are concepts

Question 22

Tell me about Axial (or Theoretical) coding once the categories are created

Answer 22

• Once categories are created, I can explore the relationships between categories and make connections
• Making new connections between categories allows other categories to emerge
• I can then constantly compare similarities and differences within and between categories
• Categories can be developed by comparing across themes & recoding
• Recoding is the principle of axial coding

Question 23

Tell me about stage 3 of data analysis, selective coding

Answer 23

*As axial coding proceeds, a ‘core category’ will emerge
that is the central issue of my data and research
*‘Selective coding’ means that I deliberately select one aspect of the data as a core category & concentrate on this
*I am essentially pulling all of my codes, concepts & categories together at a higher level of abstraction to analyse & theorise the data

Question 24

So what is Memo taking (or ‘memo-ing’)

Answer 24

• Memo taking occurs alongside the first stage (open coding) of data analysis
• I write down ideas that come to me as I are coding
• Memos can be methodological, theoretical or personal notes about the data
• Memos direct me towards new patterns in my research and lead to higher level coding

Question 25

What must I do to my data in order to start to identify themes?

Answer 25

• caress the data and critique the emerging themes, viewing them from different perspectives, examining and re-examining them.
• Reading and rereading the data while keeping track of hunches, interpretations and progressive decisions on how themes were identified.
• Constructing typologies; developing concepts and theoretical propositions (by looking at similarities & differences that emerge between cases and within the context of each individual case).

Question 26

There is no one simple method to identify themes. Sarantakos (2005) suggests 3 styles, that are dependent on the outcome I wish to achieve. Name the 3 styles

Answer 26

1. The iterative process
2. Fixed Qualitative Analysis
3. Subjectivist Qualitative Analysis

Question 27

Tell me about the iterative process

Answer 27

The iterative process includes: grounded theory (identifying indicators of a concept) and analytic induction (describe and define the topic).

Question 28

Tell me about Fixed Qualitative Analysis

Answer 28

Fixed qualitative analysis: Data analysis follows data collection & predominantly employs content analysis or text analysis. This occurs when narratives, debate & transcription are completed. There is an emphasis on the structure of conversation. Hesitations, fluctuations in speech, patterns of presentations in the narrative & ranking explanations occurs through pattern matching or explanation building.

Question 29

Tell me about Subjective Qualitative Analysis

Answer 29

Subjectivist qualitative analysis: This form of analysis features an aversion to structured research analysis and mistrust of strict techniques and methods leading to a subjective choice of methods.

Question 30

What are the six points to inform interpretation of Narrative interviews?

Answer 30

1. Formal textual analysis – cleaning & preparing the text for analysis
2. Structural description of context – Searching the text for overall structure and its composition.
3. Analytic abstraction – At this point the text allows a perception of the situation.
4. Knowledge analysis – Sets the scene for more realistic and interpretation.
5. Comparisons – at this stage related to other text parts.
6. Construction of a theoretical model – Comparison of the whole text with critical elements of interpretation.

Question 31

Taylor and Bogden (1998) suggest, “all data are potentially valuable if we know how to assess their credibility”. So how do I decide what to focus on?

Answer 31

• Progressively writing analytic memos in the coding procedure is a way of developing & refining interpretations of the data.
• Annotation of all your major themes, typologies, concepts and propositions should be undertaken.
• In particular, note information on the decisions made on discounting data and avoid limitations arising in your research through their omission. I need to justify why data & people were not represented or why expected activities did not occur.

Question 32

I have my data, how does Sarantakos (2005) recommend I best represent it?

Answer 32

*I must provide enough information to the reader to explain how you collected and interpreted your data. *This enables the reader to understand the context in which the information was produced and to evaluate the credibility of my accounts.

Question 33

What structure does Sarantakos (2005) say I should use in the research report?

Answer 33

• Title, abstract, list of contents
• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Methodology section
• Data chapter/s representing points emerging in the research process
• Conclusion

Question 34

Taylor and Bogden suggest a more comprehensive, 8 part, approach, what do they recommend?

Answer 34

1. Methodology section: information about participant observation, documentation, & the specific procedures used to gather the information.
2. Theoretical perspective – is it descriptive in nature or guided by the particular theoretical perspective chosen.
3. Time & duration of study
4. Nature & number of informants & their settings.
5. Research design: strategies used in data collection.
6. Interest, original purpose, allegiances, assumptions & whether this changed with progression through the research process.
7. Evaluation of the impact I had on the information gathered: my impact on the data, my relationships with informants & how I believe they saw me.
8. My analysis. Identification of checks made on interpretations, whether informants reviewed drafts, inter-rater reliability, etc.

Question 35

According to Sarantakos (2005) there are 7 common mistakes in presenting qualitative findings, what are they?

Answer 35

1. Letting quotes make your points.
2. Lengthy quotes or alternatively insufficient quotes, overusing colourful quotes or data overkill in your write up.
3. Changing quotes in research findings.
4. Implying inferences through a theoretical lens that may not fit the position of the informant. Care not to force the data to fit your focus.
5. Inferring generalisations to the population from the data collected in your sample. The form of analysis and theorizing in qualitative research makes it difficult to generalise findings.
6. Researchers should be cautious of personal and theoretical biases and keep in mind alternative explanations for the results.
7. Moral superiority or explanations of one group that sets a standing of difference to others.

Question 36

According to Sarantakos (2005) there are 13 strengths in qualitative research, what are they?

Answer 36

• Naturalistic – Research undertaken in natural setting or the field
• Dynamic – Focuses on processes and structure of setting
• Informative & detailed – Offers thick descriptions
• Normative – Employs a value-laden inquiry
• Constructionist – Assumes the world is human creation
• Context sensitive – Aim to identify impression of logic, rules.
• Reflexive – Values self awareness of the researcher
• Open – Inquiry does not have strict rules or preconceived ideas.
• Subjective – Against objectivity
• Interpretivist – Values the effective assessment of impressions
• Holistic – focuses on the whole study object in its entirety
• Inductive – Proceeds from data to general categories/ theory
• Small scale – Utilises small sample

Question 37

According to Sarantakos (2005) there are 10 weaknesses in qualitative research, what are they?

Answer 37

• Efficacy – unable to study relationships between variables with the accuracy required to inform on social trends or policy.
• Representativeness – Does not produce representative samples
• Generalisability – Not representative so findings can not be generalised
• Reliability & Validity – Research structure doesn’t ensure reliability/validity
• Objectivity – Process is not objective so the findings can be questionable
• Interpretations – No way that the true meanings can be captured only that of the researcher’s interpretations
• Replicability – Replication is not possible due to subjective & individualistic style
• Ethics – The nature of enquiry & closeness can lead to ethical problems emerging during the process
• Quality of data – Nature of enquiry leads to a lot of omitted data
• Time & cost evaluation – very time consuming and expensive

Question 38

From a constructionist’s perspective, knowledge of the world exists as a set of interpretations of observations (Whitley, 2002). How is this important in qualitative Research?

Answer 38

• Bias in interpretations is possible, given the ambiguity of any data presented through communications or during information gathering.
• What is said or written can have many meanings. Importantly, don’t extrapolate or overgeneralise your findings in your qualitative conclusions.
• To overcome this it’s essential to provide detailed explanation of the research process.

Question 39

Name the 5 types of Qualitative Data Collection Techniques

Answer 39

• Field research
• Ethnographic research
• Phenomenological research
• Foucauldian analysis
• Historical-comparative research

Question 40

What does Neuman (2011) say about Field Research?

Answer 40

Field Research is Qualitative research where the researcher directly observes & records notes on people in a natural setting for an extended period of time
*It involves conducting ethnographic case studies on a small group of people for a length of time.

Question 41

What does Neuman (2011) say about Ethnography?

Answer 41

*Ethnography is Field Research that emphasises providing a very detailed description of a different culture from the viewpoint of an insider in the culture to facilitate understanding of it

Question 42

What does Sarantakos (2005) say about Phenomenological Research?

Answer 42

*It is the lived experience of a small group of participants being studied. It is the interpretation by the researcher of the meanings underpinning the participants communications on a specific aspect of enquiry. This needs to be done as objectively as possible.

Question 43

What does Husserl say about Phenomenological Research?

Answer 43

*Phenomenological research is based on the “perception of the world as being created by people, the notion of natural attitude or natural standpoint, the process of getting down to the essence of people, the perception of reality through their minds (consciousness) of the respondents and the process of bracketing their communications

Question 44

What does Sarantakos (1998) say about Grounded Theory?

Answer 44

Grounded Theory is thought to emerge out of the direct study of social reality; introduced by Glaser and Strauss. *Grounded Theory is one of the bases of interpretative research.

Question 45

What does Neuman (2011) say about Historical-comparative Research?

Answer 45

Historical-comparative Research is Qualitative research in which the researcher examines data on events and conditions in the historical past and/or in different societies

Question 46

In brief, what does Sarantakos (1998) say are the 6 Strengths of Qualitative Research?

Answer 46

• Researching people in natural settings
• Stressing interpretations and meanings
• Achieving a deeper understanding of the respondent’s world
• Humanising research process by raising the role of the researched
• Allowing higher flexibility
• Presenting a more realistic view of the world.

Question 47

In brief, what does Sarantakos (1998) say are the 6 Weaknesses of Qualitative Research?

Answer 47

• Problems of reliability caused by extreme subjectivity
• Risk of collecting meaningless and useless data
• Very time consuming
• Problems of representativeness and generalisability of findings
• Problems of objectivity and detachment
• Problems of ethics (entering the personal sphere of subjects).