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Sedimentology and Stratigraphy > (S12) Shallow Marine Carbonate and Evaporite Environments > Flashcards

(S12) Shallow Marine Carbonate and Evaporite Environments Flashcards

1
Q

What is a Carbonate Platform?

A

Shallow marine areas where carbonate sedimentation occur

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2
Q

What are the two main conditions for a Carbonate Platform to occur?

A

Isolation from clastic supply, Shallow marine

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3
Q

What are the two controls on the type of carbonate grains deposited on a carbonate platform?

A

Climatic conditions, Evolution of groups of organisms

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4
Q

What are the two main controls of creation of shallow marine environments?

A

Tectonic subsidence, Sea level rise

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5
Q

What is characteristic of sediment supply of clastic material to the shelf?

A

Few large rivers supplying most of sediment to relatively small part of coastline

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6
Q

Why is climate ajacent to the continental shelf important?

A

In deserts there is little runoff into shallow marine

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7
Q

What is the main control over the amount of carbonate produced?

A

The productivity in the food chain

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8
Q

Productivity within the food chain is directly dependent on ___ which in turn is dependant on ___.

A

Availability of light, Amount of suspended material

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9
Q

Where is algal productivity likely to be at its highest?

A

Bright, tropical zones

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10
Q

What is the name for the oceanic zone which light can penetrate?

A

Photic zone

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11
Q

What is the maximum extent light can penetrate to in the ocean and where do most organisms flourish?

A

Maximum up to 100m, usually 10-20m is where most organisms flourish

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12
Q

What is the name for the shallow marine region with high biogenic productivity?

A

Carbonate factory

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13
Q

What is the optimum temperature for shallow marine productivity?

A

20 - 25 degrees

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14
Q

Where are hermatypic corals most productive?

A

Shallow clear water with strong currents

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15
Q

What is different about the location of hermatypic corals and most other marine organisms?

A

Other marine organisms tend to prefer a quieter location

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16
Q

Where does the precipitation of evaporite minerals usually occur?

A

where ocean bodies become wholly or partially isolated under arid conditions

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17
Q

When does sea water become sufficiently concentrated for precipitation of minerals to occur?

A

When evaporation exceeds input of water

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18
Q

In the past, where has larger areas of mineral precipitation occurred from seawater?

A

Epiconinental seas and small ocean basins

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19
Q

Why were carbonate facies different in the Pre-Cambrian compared to the Phanerozoic?

A

Absence of shelly organisms, lacked bioclastic components

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20
Q

Where are corals and calcareous green algae most common?

A

Low latitudes where shallow sea is always over 15 degrees

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21
Q

What is the name for a geological association formed from calcareous green algae and corals?

A

Chlorozoan

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22
Q

What is the name for a geological association formed from only calcareous green algae?

A

Chloralgal

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23
Q

What is the name for the geological assemblage of carbonates formed by the remains of benthic forams and molluscs in cooler waters?

A

Foramol

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24
Q

What assemblages are ooids most commonly associated with?

A

Chlorozoan and Chloralgal

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25
Q

What two common features found on beaches can form from the reworking of bioclastic debris and ooids by wave action?

A

Strand Plains, Barrier Islands

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26
Q

What is the texture of carbonate sediments deposited on barrier islands and strand plains?

A

Well sorted, Low mud matrix (Grainstone and Packstone)

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27
Q

What local zone is most of the carbonate detritus reworked from in shallow marine settings?

A

Shoreface

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28
Q

What is the typical angle and velocity of sedimentary structures in carbonate detritus in the foreshore and backshore areas?

A

3-13 degrees, Dips seawards in Foreshore, landwards in Backshore

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29
Q

In what tidal regime do laterally continuous barrier systems form, and when in geological time?

A

Micro-tidal, Slow rise in sea level

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30
Q

What is a “Beachrock”?

A

Carbonate in solution precipitates and acts as a cement for sand/gravel - in fully lithified rock

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31
Q

How is it possible to recognise early cementation in a beachrock?

A

On the foreshore it may act as a host for organisms which bore into the hard substrate

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32
Q

What would the succession for a prograding carbonate strandplain or beach barrier look like?

A

Coarsening upwards, well sorted, stratified grainstone and packstone

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33
Q

What is “Aeolianite”?

A

Carbonate aeolian dunes which have become wet and thus the surface of the rock becomes lithified from cement

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34
Q

What is a common occurance around roots of plants in shallow marine carbonate environments?

A

Precipitation to form Nodular Rhizocretions

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35
Q

What does sedimentation in carbonate lagoons look like?

A

Carbonate mudstone and wackestone with some grainstone and packstone beds deposited as washovers

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36
Q

What does sedimentation on a flood-tidal delta in a carbonate lagoon look like?

A

Cross-bedded oolithic and bioclastic packstone and grainstone formed by sub-aqueous dunes

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37
Q

What are the two types of sediment most commonly found on flood-tidal deltas in carbonate shallow marine settings?

A

Oolithic sediment or Bioclastic debris

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38
Q

What is the main source of fine-grained material in carbonate lagoons?

A

Calcareous algae living within the lagoon

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39
Q

What is the main control over diversity and abundance of life in carbonate lagoons?

A

Salinity

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40
Q

Give two examples of life which are found in hypersaline carbonate lagoons

A

Stromatolites, Marine Grasses (Thalassia)

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41
Q

What is the name for an area of hypersaline shallow water which precipitates evaporite minerals?

A

Saltern

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42
Q

How thick may saltern deposits become?

A

Meters to tens of meters thick

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43
Q

What type of gypsum growth may be found in saltern deposits and why?

A

Selenitic gypsum, restricted circulation in a lagoon - grows upwards from lagoon bed

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44
Q

What succession would be indicative of a fluctuating Arid Lagoon?

A

Alteration between laminated gypsum (sub-aqueous) and nodular gypsum in a supratidal sabkha

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45
Q

What is the name for the zone which is above the mean high water mark?

A

Supratidal Zone

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46
Q

When does the supratidal zone become inundated?

A

Extreme high tides or storms

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47
Q

What does the supratidal zone usually look like where the gradient to the shoreline is very low?

A

Marshy area

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48
Q

What usually forms in the marshy supratidal carbonate zone?

A

Microbial mats

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49
Q

What role does aoelian blown material play in supratidal carbonate zones?

A

Dust and sand can be bound by the microbes forming carbonate pavement

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50
Q

What may occur after the formation of a carbonate pavement?

A

Desiccation, but broken pieces are re-incorporated into sediment and re-cementation

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51
Q

What would the fabric of a succession of carbonate pavement look like?

A

Primary lamination with in-situ breccia

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52
Q

Give and example of a modern arid sabkha flat

A

Arabian Gulf

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53
Q

What is the definition of a “Sabkha”?

A

Sites of evaporite formation within coastal sediments

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54
Q

What are two common general features of a sabkha?

A

Not always a well defined beach, Usually very low relief

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55
Q

What is the most important supply of water to a sabkha?

A

Through groundwater transportation from the sea

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56
Q

How does the process of a sabkha form?

A

Evaporation through the sediment, water is drawn up and becomes increasingly concentrated in salts, dense, highly concentrated brine forms

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57
Q

Where do gypsum, halite and anhydrite form within a sabkha?

A

Gypsum forms within the sediment near a body of water, Anhydrite forms within the sediment further away from the water, Halite forms a crust at the surface

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58
Q

What forms do gypsum and anhydrite take when forming in a sabkha?

A

Gypsum = clusters, Anhydrite = Nodules

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59
Q

What is the name for the layers of anhydrite which have remnants of sediments?

A

Chicken-wire strucutre

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60
Q

What colour are terrigenous sediments in sabkhas usually?

A

Red

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61
Q

List the succession formed by sedimentation along an arid coast. (5 Main Stages)

A

Bottom: Wave reworked shallow subtidal setting, Overlain by: Intertidal microbial limestone beds, Gypsum forms in upper intertidal/lower supratidal, Anhydrite with chicken-wire structure, then coalesced beds of anhydrite in uppermost - may be contourted due to mineral growth

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62
Q

What is the name for the contourted anhydrite structure found in arid coastal environments?

A

Enterolithic bedding structure

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63
Q

What would cause a repeat in the cycle of an arid coastal succession?

A

Continued subsidence

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64
Q

What is the most distinctive feature found in arid coastal successions?

A

Displacive growth of gypsum within the sediment

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65
Q

What would the succession of carbonate sands deposited on migrating bars in tidal channels look like?

A

Cross-bedded grainstone/packstone beds

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66
Q

What is prominent in intertidal carbonate settings and why?

A

Desiccation, carbonate mud in warm climates dries out forming a crust by syndepositional cementation

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67
Q

What is the name of the feature which forms in carbonate muds where the surface layer expands from repeated precipitation? (2 names)

A

Teepee structures (Pseudoanticlines)

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68
Q

How big are psuedoanticlines usually?

A

A few 10’s cm across

69
Q

What secondary process occurs from the formation of psuedoanticlines? What is the name of the fabric formed?

A

Growth of sparry calcite cements within the cavities - Fenestrae (Fenestral cavities)

70
Q

What is the name for lime mudstones with small cavities filled with calcite?

A

Birds-eye limestone

71
Q

What forms from the trapping of fine grained sediment on algal mats?

A

Stromatolite formation

72
Q

What is stromatolite formation and abundance controlled by?

A

Activity of organisms which feed on the algae

73
Q

Where in the system do stromatolites tend to be better developed and why?

A

Better developed in the higher parts of the intertidal area which are less favourable for other organisms which may graze on the mats

74
Q

What size grain usually accumulates on a carbonate shoal?

A

Sand to granule-sized

75
Q

What environment do carbonate shoals usually form in?

A

Shallow, high energy areas

76
Q

What are carbonate shoals usually made up of?

A

Broken shelly debris and accumulations of benthic foraminifers

77
Q

What texture of material is usually found on carbonate shoals?

A

Well sorted/well rounded

78
Q

When lithified, what type of rock forms from a carbonate shoal?

A

Grainstone or packstone

79
Q

What type of sedimentary structures would be expected from a carbonate shoal?

A

Planar and trough cross-bedding from subaqueous dune migration

80
Q

What form would a carbonate shoal in a wave dominated environment take?

A

Banks parallel to coastline

81
Q

What form would a carbonate shoal in a tidal dominated environment take?

A

Banks elongated perpendicular to the shoreline

82
Q

What is the geological definition of a reef?

A

Carbonate bodies made of frame-work building benthic organisms

83
Q

What is a bioherm?

A

A reef buildup in a moundlike shape

84
Q

What is a biostrome?

A

A reef buildup which is not moundlike - bedded

85
Q

Why are Scleractinian corals successful?

A

Hermatypic (symbiotic relationship with algae) and so grow rapidly in nutrient poor waters

86
Q

Aside from corals, what is the other main reef builder?

A

Calcareous algae

87
Q

What were the earliest reef builders?

A

Cyanobacteria (Stromatolites)

88
Q

What followed stromatolites as early reef builders in the Palaeozoic?

A

Rugose and Tabulate corals, Calcareous Sponges, Stromatoporoids

89
Q

What is the name for the unusual reef-forming organism which was a type of bivalve?

A

Rudists

90
Q

How often in the Phanerozoic have reefs dominated as depositional systems? What dominated when reefs did not?

A

Four peaks, Mud mounds

91
Q

What do corals which dwell in the reef crest look like?

A

Robust structures, encrusting and massive forms able to withstand wave force

92
Q

What do corals which dwell on the reef front look like?

A

More branching and more delicate plate-like forms

93
Q

What do corals which dwell in the reef back look like?

A

More globular in forms

94
Q

How do encrusting organisms and calcareous algae contribute to a reef?

A

Stabilise the framework and provide mass

95
Q

What is the name for the process by which organisms remove mass from a reef?

A

Bioerosion

96
Q

What two common organisms contribute the most to bioerosion?

A

Fish and Molluscs

97
Q

What are the two options for the filling of voids in a reef?

A

Filled with remains of organisms and bioerosion, or not filled and crystalline calcite is precipitated

98
Q

What is the forereef?

A

A talus slope/reefal debris from reef crest

99
Q

What type of rock comes from a forereef?

A

Carbonate breccia - bioclastic rudstone or grainstone facies

100
Q

What would be the expected incline of a forereef?

A

Steeply sloping as they are gravity deposits (10 - 30 degrees)

101
Q

What type of rock would be found on a back reef?

A

Gradation from rudstone to grainstone

102
Q

What type of material could be expected at the fringe of a carbonate lagoon?

A

Broken reef material, shells, ooid formation

103
Q

What are the three main forms of reef?

A

Fringing reef, barrier reefs, patch reefs

104
Q

What is the name for a reef which builds out directly from the shoreline?

A

Fringing reef

105
Q

What is the name for a linear reef which forms parallel to the shoreline, off shore?

A

Barrier reef

106
Q

How far offshore can barrier reefs form?

A

Kilometers to tens of kilometers

107
Q

What is the name for a reef which forms on a sea mount in open ocean areas?

A

Coral atolls

108
Q

What latitude range to present day reefs occur in?

A

within 35 degrees of the equator

109
Q

Why is it incorrect to assume that reefs only form at low latitudes?

A

Corals, especially in the past, seemed to have a synbiotic relationship with algae and thus availability of nutrients was the main control over location

110
Q

What is the main cause of cessation of reef development? (2)

A

Environmental conditions: Flux of terrigenous clastic supply, or availability of nutrients

111
Q

What is the name for successions deposted over long time periods in thin layers?

A

Condensed sections

112
Q

What is a carbonate mud mound?

A

Structureless/crudely bedded body of fine crystaline carbonate

113
Q

Where do carbonate mud mounds commonly form?

A

Deeper deposits than reefs, but within the photic zone

114
Q

What are the two types of mud mounds we know of?

A

Mounds made up of microbes build in place, mounds made up of detrital material piled

115
Q

What is required for the cementation of mud?

A

Circulation of large amounts of calcium carbonate rich water

116
Q

What is the name for lithified fine grained carbomnate sediment formed in outer platform settings?

A

Chalk

117
Q

How does chert nodules form within chalk facies?

A

Redistribution of silica within beds from siliceous organisms

118
Q

How is bedding picked out in chalk deposits? (2)

A

Slight variations in proportions of clay minerals or by variations in degree of cementation

119
Q

What are the three ages were chalk is predominatly found?

A

Mesozoic, Cenozoic, Late Cretaceous

120
Q

What is the name for the unit which forms the White Cliffs of Dover, and when did it form?

A

The Chalk, Late Cretaceous

121
Q

What does a by-pass margin ook like for a carbonate platform?

A

Abrupt change in slope, can form a vertical wall with a lower angle at the bottom

122
Q

How is sediment transported to the base of the slope off a carbonate platform? (5)

A

Blocks fall, Talus slopes, Slumps, Debris flow, Turbidites

123
Q

What type of deposit does the most proximal material of a by-pass margin form?

A

Rudstones, AKA Megabreccias

124
Q

What is the name for the gentle slope which has a continuous spectrum of sediments from reef boundstones to wackestones and mudstones?

A

Depositional margins

125
Q

What may result from mudstones and wackestones deposited on steep slopes?

A

Contourted, redeposited beds - tend to be unstable on steep slopes

126
Q

What is the modern limitation of marine evaporites?

A

Coastal regions

127
Q

What does the stratigraphic record tell us about ancient evaporite deposition?

A

Has occurred over huge scales

128
Q

How large can evaporite units be when formed from shallow marine platforms?

A

Tens of kilometers across

129
Q

What is the name for a basin connected to ocean which becomes blocked?

A

Barred basin

130
Q

How deep can evaporite deposits accumulate to in barred basins?

A

Hundreds of meters

131
Q

What depth of seawater is required to produce a meter bed of halite?

A

75m

132
Q

What is required to generate a particularly thick succession of evaporite minerals?

A

Seawater being repeatedly evaporated and replenished

133
Q

What are the three ways thick successions of halite can form?

A

Shallow-water to deep-basin setting, Shallow-water to shallow basin setting, Deep-water to deep-basin setting

134
Q

Explain the process of evaporite formation in shallow-water to deep-basin settings

A

Basin is below sea level, sea-water is periodically replenished

135
Q

What is characteristic of shallow-water to deep-basin successions?

A

Evaporites overlain by deep-marine successions such as turbidites from the periodic overflow

136
Q

Explain the process of evaporite formation in shallow-water to shallow-basin settings

A

Evaporites deposited in salterns, continued subsidence in the basin allows build up of succession

137
Q

What is characteristic of shallow-water to shallow-basin successions?

A

Succession will show characteristics of shallow-water deposition throughout

138
Q

Explain the process of evaporite formation in deep-water to deep-basin settings

A

Evaporite sediments formed at shallow margins redeposited by gravity flows - normally graded beds from turbidites

139
Q

What is characteristic of deep-water to deep-basin successions?

A

Lower part of succession will be deeper water facies and overlying will be characteristic of shallow-water (two patterns)

140
Q

What are the two patterns of deep-basin successions?

A

Enclosed/barred basin: bulls-eye pattern where most soluble salts in basin center, Equilibrium between inflow/evaporation: Teardrop pattern with salinity increasing with distance from inlet

141
Q

What may depositions cycles in barred basins be related to? (2)

A

Global sea level fluctuation, Local tectonics

142
Q

Why may organic material brought to a barred basin be preserved when the salinity increases?

A

Hypersaline basins are anoxic

143
Q

What is the name given to very large barred evaporitic basins?

A

Saline gians

144
Q

What is a typical thickness and expanse of a saline giant?

A

1000m thick deposits, hundreds of thousands of km2

145
Q

What is an example of a saline giant?

A

Partial closure of the Mediterranean Sea caused the Messinian Salinity Crisis

146
Q

What could be the cause of a alternation of limestone and mud beds?

A

Flux of sediment supply to shelf, relative sea level rise

147
Q

Where may carbonate deposits co-exist with terrigeneous sediments?

A

Deltas built by ephemeral rivers in arid environments - carbonate deposits on the delta front

148
Q

Where may carbonate deposits co-exist with volcaniclastic sediments?

A

Between eruption episodes of island arc volcanoes - periods long enough to form carbonate shelves

149
Q

What are the typical lithologies associated with shallow marine carbonate deposits?

A

Limestone

150
Q

What would be expected of the mineralogies of shallow marine carbonate deposits?

A

Calcite and Aragonite

151
Q

What would be expected of the texture of shallow marine carbonate deposits?

A

Variable, biogenic structures in reefs, well sorted in shallow water

152
Q

What would be expected of the bed geometry of shallow marine carbonate deposits?

A

Massive reef build-ups, well sorted in shallow water

153
Q

What sedimentary structures would be expected in shallow marine carbonate deposits?

A

Cross-bedding in oolite shoals

154
Q

What paleoflow would be expected in shallow marine carbonate deposits?

A

Not usually diagnostic, with tide, wave and storm driven currents

155
Q

What fossils would be expected in shallow marine carbonate deposits?

A

Usually abundant, shallow marine fauna most common

156
Q

What would be expected of the sedimentary colouring of shallow marine carbonate deposits?

A

Usually pale white, cream or grey

157
Q

What facies would be expected to be associated to shallow marine carbonate deposits?

A

May occur with evaporites, associations with terrigenous clastic material may occur

158
Q

What are the typical lithologies associated with marine evaporite deposits?

A

Gypsum, anydrite and halite

159
Q

What would be expected of the mineralogies of marine evaporite deposits?

A

Evaporite minerals

160
Q

What would be expected of the texture of marine evaporite deposits?

A

Crystalline or amorphous

161
Q

What would be expected of the bed geometry of marine evaporite deposits?

A

Sheets in lagoons and barred basins, nodular in sabkhas

162
Q

What sedimentary structures would be expected in marine evaporite deposits?

A

Intrastratal solution in breccias and deformation

163
Q

What paleoflow would be expected in marine evaporite deposits?

A

Rare

164
Q

What fossils would be expected in marine evaporite deposits?

A

Rare

165
Q

What would be expected of the sedimentary colouring of marine evaporite deposits?

A

Typically white, buy may be coloured by impurities

166
Q

What facies would be expected to be associated to marine evaporite deposits?

A

Often with shallow marine carbonates

167
Q

What is the importance of limestone beds with hydrocarbons?

A

Limestones form some of the largest hydrocarbon reservouirs in the world

168
Q

What role does diagensis play on limestone successions in terms of hydrocarbon potential?

A

The formation of cement inbetween the grains decreases hydrocarbon potential

Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (19 decks)

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