Criminological

Question 0

Define recidivism

Answer 0

Reoffending. When someone repeats a crime or behaviour for which they have either been punished or has received treatment for

Question 1

Define crime

Answer 1

An act that is against the law

Question 2

Define anti-social behaviour

Answer 2

An action that citizens dislike/causes distress that can lead to it becoming a crime. The action goes against the norms and values of society. It can result in an ASBO. An example is loitering, abusive language

Question 3

Outline the lab experiment as a research method used to investigate witness effectiveness

Answer 3

Used to examine witness effectiveness by looking for cause-and-effect relationships by controlling as much as possible about the situation, setting and participants while changing one variable. The situation is set up to be an environment typical of witnessing an event. The independent variable manipulated concerns a factor that affects witnesses eg weapon focus, leading questions. This is manipulated to see the effect of that change on the dependent variable. They test a hypothesis that is generated from a theory and then the theory is amended or confirmed according to the results of the experiment

Question 4

Outline the field experiment as a research method used to investigate witness effectiveness

Answer 4

Same as lab except in the field. The incident is set up in a natural environment

Question 5

Define eyewitness testimony

Answer 5

An account people give of an incident they have witnessed

Question 6

Define reliability

Answer 6

Is found when what was done in one study is repeated and the same results are found

Question 7

Define validity

Answer 7

Is found in studies where what is measured is what is claimed to be measured

Question 8

Define modelling

Answer 8

Behaviour being demonstrated as well as behaviour being reproduced

Question 9

Define stereotyping

Answer 9

Thinking of a whole group as having certain characteristics, using evidence from 1 member of the group and assuming it is true for the whole group

Question 10

Define criminal psychology

Answer 10

3 things to include…
Looks at causes of crime.
Identifying criminals
Judgement and treatment of criminals, including rehabilitation and recidivism

Question 11

NATURE Causes of crime

Answer 11

Personality
Genes
Hormones
Brain structure

Question 12

NURTURE causes of crime

Answer 12

Stereotyping 
Maternal deprivation 
Peer pressure
Labelling 
Self-fulfilling prophecies

Question 13

Strengths of lab experiments

Answer 13

Good controls over extraneous variables so the results are not effected by unexpected variables = replicable and reliable

Can give cause and effect relationship due to good controls such as extraneous variables

Question 14

Weaknesses of lab experiments

Answer 14

The controls, manipulation, of the IV tend to mean it is not measured naturally so is not valid

Situation is not natural so lacks ecological validity. Set up, so behaviour may not be spontaneous

Question 15

Define social constructionism

Answer 15

When society constructs what a crime is

Question 16

Strengths of field experiments

Answer 16

Replicable due to strong controls
Take place in natural setting of participant. The environment is similar to what the real witness would experience = Eco valid
Repeated and get the same results = reliable

Question 17

Weaknesses of field experiments

Answer 17

Might not allow enough control of extraneous variables so hard to replicate. In a field experiment it is likely that every situation is different

Might not be valid with regard to task, a line-up that has been set up is not the same as trying to identify a real life criminal. You can’t cross check for reliability of eyewitness testimony

Conditions manipulated as still an experiment, lacks validity. However is hard to control every aspect

Question 18

What are the 5 BPS guidelines for ethics when carrying out a research method and what do they mean

Answer 18

Informed consent - ps told as much as possible without ruining study. Have full consent

Right it withdraw, privacy, confidentiality- allowed to stop the study at any time, results will not be published. Ps identity kept secret to preserve privacy and maintain confidentiality

Debriefing - told at end what happened and what results were found, ask if they are happy to have their results included in study

Competence - ability to carry out the study, may consult with colleagues who is competent

Distress- ps shouldn’t be distressed or be harmed. Should leave the study in the same emotional state in which they started

Question 19

How do lab and field experiments compare in terms of ethics

Answer 19

Ps in some field experiments can’t be asked for consent at all, as ps are found in field and public places so may often not be prepared beforehand to let them know they are in study. Ps asked for consent afterwards, could be seen as less ethical than lab experiments where ps usually know they are taking part in study

Question 20

Define vicarious learning

Answer 20

If someone is rewarded for a behaviour, it makes them more likely to copy that behaviour

Question 21

Define external motivation

Answer 21

Once the behaviour has been copied then the rules of operant conditioning apply (ie behaviours which are rewarded are more likely to be repeated, and punishment will likely deter behaviours)

Question 22

Define self-reinforcement

Answer 22

A behaviour is more likely to be repeated if it satisfies some internal needs, for example excitement when committing the crime or a feeling of power

Question 23

Define positive reinforcement

Answer 23

Rewarded for doing something positive

Question 24

Define negative reinforcement

Answer 24

Removal of something unpleasant

Question 25

Children could become desensitised to violence…

Answer 25

Children are more likely to use violence themselves or show aggression to others. Watching violences on TV may make children more afraid

Question 26

Define disinhibition

Answer 26

It refers to the possibility that watching actions that are so far outside social norms, such as violent actions, might help to reduce our inhibitions and lead us to do things we might not otherwise do

Question 27

Define schemata for violence

Answer 27

Plans or scripts in the mind are built up with experience

Question 28

Define alarm reaction

Answer 28

Prepares for flight or fight and can lead to an aggressive or violent response

Question 29

What is the misinformation effect

Answer 29

The effect of using leading questions when the question includes inaccurate info. Loftus used lab studies to look at the effect of giving the wrong info to a witness. The aim was to see if the witness involved would incorporate the wrong info into their witness statement. The idea is that memory is reconstructive, not like a tape recording, witness uses past experiences and info when telling story.

Question 30

Describe the creation of false childhood memories

Answer 30

Lotus carried out research in planting false early memories to see if people accept those memories as accurate, seems that they do. Memories constructed from present and past experiences, some may be completely false, affect how we view eye witness testimony

Question 31

Describe one way that a lab experiment has been used to study witness effectiveness

Answer 31

Used in loftus and Palmer study, carried out many lab experiments and often used students as ps. Loftus method was to show students a film and then ask them questions about what they had seen. The idea was to find out what it was about questioning that might lead a witness to give false info.

Question 32

How useful are field experiments of witness effectiveness

Answer 32

Field experiments produce valid results due to techniques used such as randomisation and the double blind technique. These help to rule out confounding variables. These procedures and controls must be thorough, meaning field experiments are valuable because they have the reliability and scientific status of lab experiments , while also being valid due to the real life setting.

Question 33

Who are role models? What makes a good role model?

Answer 33

Anyone that you look up to and identify with in some way. Tend to be similar age or just older, the same sex, have achieved something that you want to achieve. The role model may be a gang leader and aggressive

Question 34

Bandura proposed that there are 3 important factors as to whether we decide to copy. These are….

Answer 34

Vicarious learning

External motivation

Self reinforcement

Question 35

Steps in the modelling process…

Answer 35

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation

Question 36

Evaluate social learning theory as an explanation of criminal behaviour

Answer 36

Strengths…
Lots of experimental evidence to show behaviour is imitated
Has practical application, can help rehabilitate offenders- use of role models, learning appropriate behaviour, reinforcements

Weaknesses….
Doesn’t look at individual differences, only social factors. There are other explanations eg genetic predisposition
Doesn’t account for opportunist criminal behaviour, doesn’t account for all crime and doesn’t explain why someone commits the crime in the absence of a criminal role model

Question 37

Social learning theory suggests that behaviour comes from ………… role models and ………….. that behaviour. This is known as ………….. learning

Answer 37

Observing

Imitating

Observational

Question 51

Where are token economy programmes mainly used

Answer 51

Prisons
Schools
Mental health institutions

Question 52

What are token economy programmes

Answer 52

Based on principle of operant conditioning, form of behaviour modification. Based on rewarding punishment and the concept of generalisation, which is the idea that once a desired behaviour is reinforced, this behaviour then generalised outside institution. The rewards exchanged for something the individual wants eg leisure time, phone cards.The tokens are secondary reinforcers. Positive reinforcement encourages appropriate behaviours to be repeated. Makes prison life more harmonious

Question 53

What is the procedure of a token economy programme

Answer 53

What is desired behaviour

What is a token

How tokens are allocated

What is a reward

How there will be gradual changing of the giving of tokens to shape the behaviour

How many tokens there are for each reward

How the reward will be removed once the behaviour is achieved

Question 54

Evaluate the token economy programme

Answer 54

Strengths…
Can be administered by anyone
Tokens and rewards cheap
Supported by other studies eg Pearson et al and Milby

Weaknesses….
Learning might not transfer to home environment, may lead to recidivism
Response is short lived
Tokens may be used as contraband within the prison, therefore abusing criminal behaviour rather than preventing it
Abuse of giving of tokens by the staff

Question 59

Define labelling

Answer 59

It involves a majority group considering a minority group as inferior and using inferior terms when talking about them

Question 60

Define stereotyping

Answer 60

Thinking of a whole group as having certain characteristics, usually using evidence from one member of the group and assuming that this evidence is true for all members

Question 61

What are the stages of self fulfilling prophecy

Answer 61

Person commits act perceived as antisocial

Labelled as antisocial person

Person is treated in certain way because of the label. People are suspicious and give little opportunity to change label

Person reacts to expectations by behaving according to label

Persons behaviour fulfils expectations, which confirms the label and so the behaviour continues. The label is internalised

Question 62

How can self fulfilling prophecy be used to explain criminal behaviour

Answer 62

There is a link between crime and lower class, clear in statistics. Eg if a young person is known to come from a poor family they might, through stereotyping, be labelled as ‘bad’ in some way

Question 63

What is a leading question

Answer 63

One that suggests to the witness what answer is desired

Question 64

Compare social learning theory with self fulfilling prophecy

Answer 64

SLT explains aggression as observation, SFP explains it as how people behave towards us

Both have ethical issues, can’t experimentally test them

Both rely on correlational analysis which can’t draw cause and effect conclusions

Question 65

Explain how the findings of research could be used by the police to help improve the effectiveness of eyewitness memory

Answer 65

Cognitive interview developed

Cue recall used- cues to prompt the witness’s memory eg what were they feeling before witnessing the incident

Police should be aware that weapons can hinder recall

Open ended questions should be used to prevent misleading the witness

Question 66

Explain one ethical issue that must be considered when conducting a lab experiment into eyewitness testimony

Answer 66

Participants should be given informed consent to agree to take part in the eyewitness study with knowledge of what’s going to happen

Should be informed about any stress/discomfort they are to witness and decide whether they want to participate

Question 67

Lab experiments are criticised for lacking validity. Explain how problems with validity may effect lab research in criminological psychology

Answer 67

Results can’t be generalised

Lab experiments may lack the emotionality of a real criminal event

A lab experiment that is staged does not reflect the spontaneous events that a real witness may experience

Lack of realism can lead to demand characteristics

Question 68

Ways in which Loftus and Palmer study might be improved

Answer 68

Watch films in natural setting- naturalistic behaviour

Could have been interviewed by police- real sense of what it would be like to be a real witness

Ps could have witnessed real car crash

Use a more varied sample-not just students

Question 69

Describe the meaning of the term ‘modelling’ as it is used to explain anti-social behaviour

Answer 69

Vicarious reinforcement encourages modelling of anti-social behaviour

Anti-social behaviour that is reinforced in some way is seen as more likely to be modelled by the observer

An observer may identify with the role model because they share similar characteristics