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A2 Psychology > Criminological > Flashcards

Criminological Flashcards

(53 cards)

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0
Q

Define recidivism

A

Reoffending. When someone repeats a crime or behaviour for which they have either been punished or has received treatment for

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1
Q

Define crime

A

An act that is against the law

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2
Q

Define anti-social behaviour

A

An action that citizens dislike/causes distress that can lead to it becoming a crime. The action goes against the norms and values of society. It can result in an ASBO. An example is loitering, abusive language

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3
Q

Outline the lab experiment as a research method used to investigate witness effectiveness

A

Used to examine witness effectiveness by looking for cause-and-effect relationships by controlling as much as possible about the situation, setting and participants while changing one variable. The situation is set up to be an environment typical of witnessing an event. The independent variable manipulated concerns a factor that affects witnesses eg weapon focus, leading questions. This is manipulated to see the effect of that change on the dependent variable. They test a hypothesis that is generated from a theory and then the theory is amended or confirmed according to the results of the experiment

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4
Q

Outline the field experiment as a research method used to investigate witness effectiveness

A

Same as lab except in the field. The incident is set up in a natural environment

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5
Q

Define eyewitness testimony

A

An account people give of an incident they have witnessed

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6
Q

Define reliability

A

Is found when what was done in one study is repeated and the same results are found

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7
Q

Define validity

A

Is found in studies where what is measured is what is claimed to be measured

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8
Q

Define modelling

A

Behaviour being demonstrated as well as behaviour being reproduced

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9
Q

Define stereotyping

A

Thinking of a whole group as having certain characteristics, using evidence from 1 member of the group and assuming it is true for the whole group

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10
Q

Define criminal psychology

A

3 things to include…
Looks at causes of crime.
Identifying criminals
Judgement and treatment of criminals, including rehabilitation and recidivism

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11
Q

NATURE Causes of crime

A

Personality
Genes
Hormones
Brain structure

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12
Q

NURTURE causes of crime

A 
Stereotyping 
Maternal deprivation 
Peer pressure
Labelling 
Self-fulfilling prophecies
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13
Q

Strengths of lab experiments

A

Good controls over extraneous variables so the results are not effected by unexpected variables = replicable and reliable

Can give cause and effect relationship due to good controls such as extraneous variables

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14
Q

Weaknesses of lab experiments

A

The controls, manipulation, of the IV tend to mean it is not measured naturally so is not valid

Situation is not natural so lacks ecological validity. Set up, so behaviour may not be spontaneous

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15
Q

Define social constructionism

A

When society constructs what a crime is

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16
Q

Strengths of field experiments

A

Replicable due to strong controls
Take place in natural setting of participant. The environment is similar to what the real witness would experience = Eco valid
Repeated and get the same results = reliable

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17
Q

Weaknesses of field experiments

A

Might not allow enough control of extraneous variables so hard to replicate. In a field experiment it is likely that every situation is different

Might not be valid with regard to task, a line-up that has been set up is not the same as trying to identify a real life criminal. You can’t cross check for reliability of eyewitness testimony

Conditions manipulated as still an experiment, lacks validity. However is hard to control every aspect

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18
Q

What are the 5 BPS guidelines for ethics when carrying out a research method and what do they mean

A

Informed consent - ps told as much as possible without ruining study. Have full consent

Right it withdraw, privacy, confidentiality- allowed to stop the study at any time, results will not be published. Ps identity kept secret to preserve privacy and maintain confidentiality

Debriefing - told at end what happened and what results were found, ask if they are happy to have their results included in study

Competence - ability to carry out the study, may consult with colleagues who is competent

Distress- ps shouldn’t be distressed or be harmed. Should leave the study in the same emotional state in which they started

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19
Q

How do lab and field experiments compare in terms of ethics

A

Ps in some field experiments can’t be asked for consent at all, as ps are found in field and public places so may often not be prepared beforehand to let them know they are in study. Ps asked for consent afterwards, could be seen as less ethical than lab experiments where ps usually know they are taking part in study

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20
Q

Define vicarious learning

A

If someone is rewarded for a behaviour, it makes them more likely to copy that behaviour

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21
Q

Define external motivation

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A

Once the behaviour has been copied then the rules of operant conditioning apply (ie behaviours which are rewarded are more likely to be repeated, and punishment will likely deter behaviours)

22
Q

Define self-reinforcement

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A

A behaviour is more likely to be repeated if it satisfies some internal needs, for example excitement when committing the crime or a feeling of power

23
Q

Define positive reinforcement

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A

Rewarded for doing something positive

24
Define negative reinforcement
Removal of something unpleasant
25
Children could become desensitised to violence...
Children are more likely to use violence themselves or show aggression to others. Watching violences on TV may make children more afraid
26
Define disinhibition
It refers to the possibility that watching actions that are so far outside social norms, such as violent actions, might help to reduce our inhibitions and lead us to do things we might not otherwise do
27
Define schemata for violence
Plans or scripts in the mind are built up with experience
28
Define alarm reaction
Prepares for flight or fight and can lead to an aggressive or violent response
29
What is the misinformation effect
The effect of using leading questions when the question includes inaccurate info. Loftus used lab studies to look at the effect of giving the wrong info to a witness. The aim was to see if the witness involved would incorporate the wrong info into their witness statement. The idea is that memory is reconstructive, not like a tape recording, witness uses past experiences and info when telling story.
30
Describe the creation of false childhood memories
Lotus carried out research in planting false early memories to see if people accept those memories as accurate, seems that they do. Memories constructed from present and past experiences, some may be completely false, affect how we view eye witness testimony
31
Describe one way that a lab experiment has been used to study witness effectiveness
Used in loftus and Palmer study, carried out many lab experiments and often used students as ps. Loftus method was to show students a film and then ask them questions about what they had seen. The idea was to find out what it was about questioning that might lead a witness to give false info.
32
How useful are field experiments of witness effectiveness
Field experiments produce valid results due to techniques used such as randomisation and the double blind technique. These help to rule out confounding variables. These procedures and controls must be thorough, meaning field experiments are valuable because they have the reliability and scientific status of lab experiments , while also being valid due to the real life setting.
33
Who are role models? What makes a good role model?
Anyone that you look up to and identify with in some way. Tend to be similar age or just older, the same sex, have achieved something that you want to achieve. The role model may be a gang leader and aggressive
34
Bandura proposed that there are 3 important factors as to whether we decide to copy. These are....
Vicarious learning External motivation Self reinforcement
35
Steps in the modelling process...
Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation
36
Evaluate social learning theory as an explanation of criminal behaviour
Strengths... Lots of experimental evidence to show behaviour is imitated Has practical application, can help rehabilitate offenders- use of role models, learning appropriate behaviour, reinforcements Weaknesses.... Doesn't look at individual differences, only social factors. There are other explanations eg genetic predisposition Doesn't account for opportunist criminal behaviour, doesn't account for all crime and doesn't explain why someone commits the crime in the absence of a criminal role model
37
Social learning theory suggests that behaviour comes from ............ role models and .............. that behaviour. This is known as .............. learning
Observing Imitating Observational
51
Where are token economy programmes mainly used
Prisons Schools Mental health institutions
52
What are token economy programmes
Based on principle of operant conditioning, form of behaviour modification. Based on rewarding punishment and the concept of generalisation, which is the idea that once a desired behaviour is reinforced, this behaviour then generalised outside institution. The rewards exchanged for something the individual wants eg leisure time, phone cards.The tokens are secondary reinforcers. Positive reinforcement encourages appropriate behaviours to be repeated. Makes prison life more harmonious
53
What is the procedure of a token economy programme
What is desired behaviour What is a token How tokens are allocated What is a reward How there will be gradual changing of the giving of tokens to shape the behaviour How many tokens there are for each reward How the reward will be removed once the behaviour is achieved
54
Evaluate the token economy programme
Strengths... Can be administered by anyone Tokens and rewards cheap Supported by other studies eg Pearson et al and Milby Weaknesses.... Learning might not transfer to home environment, may lead to recidivism Response is short lived Tokens may be used as contraband within the prison, therefore abusing criminal behaviour rather than preventing it Abuse of giving of tokens by the staff
59
Define labelling
It involves a majority group considering a minority group as inferior and using inferior terms when talking about them
60
Define stereotyping
Thinking of a whole group as having certain characteristics, usually using evidence from one member of the group and assuming that this evidence is true for all members
61
What are the stages of self fulfilling prophecy
Person commits act perceived as antisocial Labelled as antisocial person Person is treated in certain way because of the label. People are suspicious and give little opportunity to change label Person reacts to expectations by behaving according to label Persons behaviour fulfils expectations, which confirms the label and so the behaviour continues. The label is internalised
62
How can self fulfilling prophecy be used to explain criminal behaviour
There is a link between crime and lower class, clear in statistics. Eg if a young person is known to come from a poor family they might, through stereotyping, be labelled as 'bad' in some way
63
What is a leading question
One that suggests to the witness what answer is desired
64
Compare social learning theory with self fulfilling prophecy
SLT explains aggression as observation, SFP explains it as how people behave towards us Both have ethical issues, can't experimentally test them Both rely on correlational analysis which can't draw cause and effect conclusions
65
Explain how the findings of research could be used by the police to help improve the effectiveness of eyewitness memory
Cognitive interview developed Cue recall used- cues to prompt the witness's memory eg what were they feeling before witnessing the incident Police should be aware that weapons can hinder recall Open ended questions should be used to prevent misleading the witness
66
Explain one ethical issue that must be considered when conducting a lab experiment into eyewitness testimony
Participants should be given informed consent to agree to take part in the eyewitness study with knowledge of what's going to happen Should be informed about any stress/discomfort they are to witness and decide whether they want to participate
67
Lab experiments are criticised for lacking validity. Explain how problems with validity may effect lab research in criminological psychology
Results can't be generalised Lab experiments may lack the emotionality of a real criminal event A lab experiment that is staged does not reflect the spontaneous events that a real witness may experience Lack of realism can lead to demand characteristics
68
Ways in which Loftus and Palmer study might be improved
Watch films in natural setting- naturalistic behaviour Could have been interviewed by police- real sense of what it would be like to be a real witness Ps could have witnessed real car crash Use a more varied sample-not just students
69
Describe the meaning of the term 'modelling' as it is used to explain anti-social behaviour
Vicarious reinforcement encourages modelling of anti-social behaviour Anti-social behaviour that is reinforced in some way is seen as more likely to be modelled by the observer An observer may identify with the role model because they share similar characteristics

A2 Psychology (4 decks)

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