Wk 13 - LTM 2

Question 0

What is meant by encoding? (X2)

Answer 0

The processing operations (type of study) that cause item to be stored in LTM

Question 1

What is meant by retrieval? (X2)

Answer 1

Using provided/self-generated cues to retrieve items from memory
Processes may be different for recall/recog

Question 2

What is meant by encoding/retrieval interactions? (X3)

Answer 2

The good memory not just down to good encoding and retrieval cues - need to consider
How the material is to be used, and
How memory is to be assessed at test

Question 3

What is the argument for depth of processing in memory encoding? (X1)
And three pieces of evidence for?

Answer 3

Argument is for continuum of depth: orthography, phonology, semantic
Craik found better recall after semantic than rehearsal
Small size difference between animals = better memory for words - deeper semantic analysis for small diffs
Recall better for words used in elaborate way, eg the great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling (chicken)

Question 4

Describe evidence on the influence of emotion on memory encoding (x3)

Answer 4

Rubin/Kozin found strongest childhood memories for emotionally charged events - but probably through repeated discussions
Cahill/McGaugh found better memories for ‘real’ surgical pictures than fake
High confidence proclaimed for flashbulb memories of significant events

Question 5

What does evidence suggest about retrieval processes and cues?

Answer 5

Good cues - contextual info encoded (provided or self-generated) at study, or given at test = better recall

Question 6

What is the Transfer Appropriate Processing framework? (X11)

And two pieces of evidence for?

Answer 6

It is idea that transfer to LTM is best when study and test processes overlap
Morris, Bransford, Frank: superiority of semantic memory is due to the semantic nature of most memory tests
Encoding specificity - Tulving, Thompson: retrieval is best if conditions, info, encoding match those at retrieval

Question 7

What are one indirect and three direct benefits of repeated tests of learning?

Answer 7

Study more when know a test is coming
Highlights gaps in knowledge
Additional encoding of retrieved material
Improved ease of retrieval

Question 8

How does the Transfer Appropriate Processing framework differ from memory systems concept? (X2)
Plus one piece of evidence

Answer 8

Need to rethink of episodic/semantic memory systems as distinct,
And by extension that tests were accessing one or the other
Encoding in Blaxton: conceptual condition generated related word, perceptual read the word with a control, found that match CS mismatch at study/test would predict memory

Question 9

What approaches can you take to uni learning, apart from repeated testing?(x3)

Answer 9

Distributed practice
Elaborative interrogation - why is this true?
Self-explanation/ordering of info

Question 10

What evidence discounts the Levels of Processing idea of memory encoding? (X2)

Answer 10

The Stroop effect - asked to process orthography, not meaning
So effect wouldn’t happen if we could truly only process at that level

Question 11

Craig found that intent to learn has what impact on memory encoding?
(X3)

Answer 11

None
Results are the same as for semantic - higher than orthography then phonology
But this likely indicates use of semantic strategies

Question 12

Hue and Jenkins, 1973, found what impact for intent to learn on memory encoding? (X3)

Answer 12

None
Ratings of pleasantness of task, or letter checking task, under impression of memory task to come, or not
No diff in incidental/intentional, but higher for semantic task

Question 13

How does semantic processing work, according to the LOP model of memory encoding? (X2)

Answer 13

It’s the impact on retrieval -

More pathways, cues, connections

Question 14

Deep/semantic/elaborate processing is associated with what processes of student learning? (X3)

Answer 14

Organisation - own order enhances memory, eg method of loci, mnemonics
Chunking - promoted through meaning/structure of items
Understanding - learn story better if preceded by an interpretation

Question 15

What are the logical/conceptual issues of the LOP model of memory encoding? (X2)

Answer 15

Badddley - it’s circular; deep = memory = deep
Craik/Tulving - couldn’t isolate properties of deep processing: doesn’t take longer, and difficulty of task doesn’t improve memory

Question 16

Empirical issues with the LOP model of memory encoding? (X1)
And evidence (x2)

Answer 16

Is it meaning or distinctiveness?
Eysenck/Eysenck found that distinctiveness in pronunciation groups increased memory to same level as distinct/typical semantic conditions
So connections support retrieval, and distinctiveness helps figure among related items/diff responses

Question 17

What is th relationship between emotion and encoding? (X1)

Although evidence that this doesn’t tell the whole story… (X1)

Answer 17

Emotion = arousal = attention
Neilson et al found that showing surgical vs neutral pics after asked to remember word list = better memory - biochemical effect on consolidation caused by emotion

Question 18

What distinguishes flashbulb memories from others? (X2)

Which must be considered during… (X1)

Answer 18

Confidence
Memories subject to same levels of forgetting, despite intense sense of accurate recall
Criminal cases - must take FAs into account…

Question 19

The relationship between study and test is vital to… (x2)

Answer 19

What aspect of material are encoded

What cognitive operations are carried out on the material

Question 20

What is encoding specificity (Tulving/Thomson, 1973)? (x1)

And evidence for… (x2)

Answer 20

Retrieval best if conditions, info and encoding match those at retrieval
Better accuracy for words remembered singly/paired depending on single/paired at study
Environment context and state-dependent learning – recall best if you reinstate many of the conditions as possible (eg study words either in water or on land)

Question 21

What is a possible side effect of repeated retrievals on memory encoding? (x2)
With implications for (x2)

Answer 21

Memory is reconstructive
Encode info from own schemas = interaction
Repeated questioning in legal testimony, and tests of student learning

Question 22

Spitzer 1939, and Roediger/Karpicke 2006, showed effects of early testing on memory recall, finding that… (x2 + 2)

Answer 22

RL study found large drop in accuracy if first test delayed
Levelled out after 2 weeks, but early group consistently higher
Lab test memorising 40 words
Groups: study-test (STST), repeated study (SSST), repeated test (STTT)
Order of best recall one week later: STST, STTT, SSST

Question 23

Testing can give the illusion of knowledge through access to info in WM if… (x3)

Answer 23

When test immediate after study
Material repeatedly studied
Correct answer available without effortful retrieval

Question 24

Evidence shows that testing benefits are most evident if… (x2)
And… (x1)

Answer 24

The first test is shortly after study, but not soon enough to access WM
Feedback is given after each test

Question 25

Thomson et al 1978 established the effects of test feedback, in a study involving… (x1)
Which found that…(x2)
Concluding…(x1)

Answer 25

Repeated testing with representation afterwards of items not recalled
= better performance after learning, 48 hrs later too, than SSSS or STTT
Testing consolidates recall, study picks up those not originally well encoded
Feedback essential – best after a retrieval effort, while concepts still active

Question 26

Two possible disadvantages of testing…

But these are… (x1)

Answer 26

Interference from prior tests can = retrieval induced forgetting
Learning of incorrect answers, Roediger/Marsh: Ps read passage, then do multiple choice followed by cued-recall
Large benefit of prior test, with small suggestion effect
Both small impacts relative to benefits

Question 27

When do multiple-choice tests provide testing benefits? (x2)

Answer 27

Use plausible distractors = thinking about alternatives

Thereby fostering learning about both in/correct answers

Question 28

LOP theory held that…(x1)

But we now know that… (x2)

Answer 28

Certain encoding tasks were generally superior
Memory quality depends on how task implemented, and
Extent to which study processes used at test

Question 29

Interpreting memory accuracy requires consideration of

Answer 29

Recognition as a discrimination task
Take into account Hits and FA
◦ e.g., subtract FA from Hits to correct the Hits for guessing yes.
◦ Perform signal detection analysis to estimate sensitivity and bias
If FA rate is very low, Hits can be interpreted more safely.

Question 30

What is the theoretical significance of Eysenck/Eysenck’s semantic tasks/distinctiveness findings?

Answer 30

Proposed that semantic study tasks made items distinctive
◦ Meaning helps memory through distinctiveness, NOT because it is “deep” processing
Took “superficial” task (pronunciation), and changed it to make items distinctive
◦ Give items a different (regular) pronunciation
Predicted/found good memory in the “say as regular” (phonetic) condition.