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Brain and Behavior > 3 > Flashcards

3 Flashcards

1
Q

The Motor Unit

A

One motor axon and all the muscle fibers it innervates

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2
Q

What is the basic unit of movement

A

The Reflex

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3
Q

What does closed-loop mechanism maximize

A

Accuracy

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4
Q

What transmitters is used at the neuromuscular junction

A

ACH

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5
Q

What is the neuromuscular junction?

A

Where the motor neuron axon innervates the muscle fiber

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6
Q

The size principle of motor neruon recruitment

A

Strong contraction =large fast twitch fibers.

Weak contraction =small slow twitch

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7
Q

Fibers that lie within the muscle spindle are known as what

A

Intrafusal

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8
Q

What has a low innervation ratio

A

fine movements such as in fingers

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9
Q

What does poliovirus destroy

A

Motor neurons in brain stem and Spinal cord

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10
Q

What do Golgi tendon organs report

A

Contraction and tension

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11
Q

Sperm and ova are known as what and what do they form when fused

A

Gametes, and zygote

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12
Q

What does the SRY gene code for?

A

SRY protein that differentiates the gonad into the testes

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13
Q

In mammals, whether the body develops in a male or female pattern depends mostly on…

A

Testosterone

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14
Q

What are the stages of reproductive behavior?

A
  1. Sexual attraction
  2. Appetitive Behavior
  3. Copulation
  4. Post Copulatory Behavior
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15
Q

Which of the following factors is most important in determining whether an adult male rat and a female rat will mate?

A

Willingness of the female

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16
Q

Animals born in a rather early stage of bodily development are called

A

Altricial vs the more developed precocial

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17
Q

What does the organizational/activational Hypothesis state

A

a single steroid signal masculinizes the body, the brain during development and activate later in adulthood the associated behaviors

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18
Q

Sexual receptivity often corresponds with ovulation in female mammals and it is necessary for ____________.

A

Copulation

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19
Q

What does the Vomeronasal organ in rats detect?

A

Pheromones

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20
Q

What will a proceptive female do?

A

perform different behaviors to attract a male

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21
Q

What are the phases of response in human sexual behavior?

A

excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

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22
Q

What is 5alpha reductase important for developing?

A

external genitalia in males

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23
Q

How are muscles attached to the bone?

A

Special tissue connects the muscle and bones, holding them together

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24
Q

Which sensory organ forms the proprioception system?

A

Spindle systems(length) and Golgi organs(tension)

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25
Q

Coolidge effect

A

no refractory phase when exposed to novel female

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26
Q

What is the main coordinator of male sexual behavior

A

Medial pre-optic area

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27
Q

At what age foes the early gender identity occur?

A

3-4 years of age

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28
Q

where does the expression of the gene SRY occur

A

Pregonads to turn them into testes

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29
Q

Does REM increase with age?

A

no it decreases dramatically very early and then more as a senior.

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30
Q

In humans , the free running period is

A

longer than 24 hours

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31
Q

tau mutation is hamsters is results in what?

A

short circadian cycle, one mutation 2 hour less, two =4 hour less

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32
Q

Motor plan

A

a set of muscle commands established before the action occurs, like in speech

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33
Q

Ramp movements

A

Slow , sustained motions

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34
Q

Striated muscles and their two types

A

under voluntary control, Fast-twitch, slow-twitch

35
Q

Primary motor cortex’s relationship with the nonprimary cortex

A

Primary intitiates command

Non primary intitiates cortical processing

36
Q

Meaning of final common pathway

A

Motoneurons are the final pathway which the brain and spinal cord can control muscles

37
Q

Two receptor endings for muscle spindles

A

Primary:Wrap center and are dynamic, sensitive early in a stretch

secondary:Wrap ends and are static, they change rate slowly, more sensitive to maintained length

38
Q

What are the two factors affecting muscle stretch

A

THe rate of change of muscle length,

The necessary force exerted to maintain the desired activity.

39
Q

Gamma motoneurons(efferents)

A

alter tension withing hte spindle and control receptor sensitivity, contrast to alpha motoneurons for extrafusal muscle fibers.

40
Q

Function of golgi tendon organ,

A

Responsive to muscle contraction and when stimulated inhibits motoneuron action on muscles to prevent damage.

41
Q

afferent

A

Bottom up

42
Q

efferent

A

top-down

43
Q

Pyramidal (corticospinal) system

A

From cortex to spinal cord through brain stem at the pyramid of the medulla, cross at decussation in medualla, split into left side and right where opposite cortex controls

44
Q

EXtrapyramdal system

A

Reticulo spinal tract and rubrospinal tract. Former originates in reticular fomration and the latter in the red nucleus of the midbrain.

45
Q

Nonprimary cortex

A

anterior to M1 and has SMA and premotor cortex modulates M1

46
Q

SMA

A

supplementary motor area, receives some input from basal ganglia initiates sequences of movements and PLANNING movements that are internally generated.

47
Q

Premotor cortex

A

anterior to the primary motor cortex, directs movement in response to external cues

48
Q

Reticulospinal tract

A

originates in reticular formation and has inhibitory and excitatory effects

49
Q

Rubrospinal tract

A

Red nucleus of midbrain. is involved in motor output

50
Q

Cerebellum in motor control

A

Cerebellar cortex purkinje cells guide movement through inhibition. important for repeated and skilled movements.

51
Q

Basal ganglia and cerebellum correlations with cortical areas

A

The cerebellum lines up with SMA to monitor ongoing activity and produce smooth movements
Basal ganglia lines up with M1 to initiate and terminate movements

52
Q

explain stretch reflex

A

Weight added, muscles stretched and afferents in spindle are excite, go directly to motor neurons that control the stretched muscle then stimulate the muscle to oppose muscle streth

53
Q

Pheromones and how they guide sexual behavior

A

male rats have VNO which sends signal to medial amygdala then mPOA, allows communicaion for

54
Q

How is parental behavior in rodents studied?

A

parabiotic exchange showed hormones induce parental behavior in mice

55
Q

Sexual differentiation

A

The process by which individuals develop male or female bodies and behavior

56
Q

Sexu determination

A

early developmental event that decides if a fetus will be male or female

57
Q

What does SRY, Test, AMH and DHT do for humans?

A

SRY-differentiates gonads to testes.
TEST-promotes development of wolffiean system
AMH-induces the regression of the mullerian system(ANTI-MULLERIAN)

DHT-external genitalia by 5a reductase from TEST

58
Q

What are the different malformations of the sexual organs?

A

Turners- one X ,slow growth, hearing loss, retardation
CAH- result of female exposure to androgens before birth
Cloacal exstrophy-boys born with testes but no penis
AIS-occurs in XY with no androgen receptors

59
Q

How can gender be defined?

A

Chromosomal, Gonadal, Hormonal, MOrphological, Behavioral (the most difficult to place down)

60
Q

What is the organizationala nd activational effect of hormones

A

1st is a permanent alteration of behavior( through nervous system) while activational is temporary

61
Q

How does testosterone and estrogen masculinize the brain during development

A

Aromatization hypothesis

62
Q

Alfa-fetoprotein in females

A

Blocks maternal estrogen from entering the brain , test is the bypass in males that gets converted into estradiol by Aromatase

63
Q

Define Sexual dimorphism

A

Male and females are different. male birds have larger syrinxes. Male rats have larger POA (SDN-POA)

64
Q

How are motoneruons in the spinal cord affected by test during development.

A

motoneurons that control BC muscles are receptive to testosterone and cause secretion of trophic(CNTF) factors.

65
Q

Possible biological and cultural factors for sexual orientationa

A

Guevedoces show alteration of behavior (female to male) at puberty so it may be neonatal, prenatal, or at the second sensitive period

66
Q

What factors may play a role in homosexuality in humans?

A

some brain structures are noticable larger in heterosexual , INAH-3. This can just be an indicator of early influences from certain hormones or socially.

67
Q

WHat is circadian, infradian, and ultradian?

A

circadian is the daily rhyhym, infradian is longer than circadian, ultradian is shorter than circadian

68
Q

Zeitgeber

A

the light stimulus that entrains the circadian cycle

69
Q

SCN

A

the suprachiasmatic Nucleus of the hypothalamus takes signals directly from the optic nerve to set the circadian cycle by way of the retinohypothalamic pathway. hamster experiments prove

70
Q

how did fruit flies affect the discovery of the internal clock.

A

allowed discovery of genes responsible for rhythym

71
Q

how does the mammalian molecular clock work?

A
  1. CLock and BMAL1 bind together to a dimer that enhances transcription of Per and Cry genes. Here also glutamate form RNH pathway is introduced to enhance transcription of Per
  2. The per and cry proteins inhibit production of more per and cry for around 24 hours
72
Q

What are different approaches to study sleep rhythyms

A

EEG, EOG EMG

73
Q

Stages and characteristics of reNREM

A

15-20 hz low amp waves- beta activity or desynchronized eeg

8-12 hz is alpha rhythm which is where relaxation occurs

74
Q

stages and characteristics of NREM

A

Vertex spikes at stage 1
12-14hz waves called sleep spindles and k complexes is stage 2
-If awakened here people will deny that they were asleep

SWS when 1 hz large amp delta waves are present. This stage is likened to chanting and is stage 3. GH is also most eminent here.

75
Q

Stages and Characteristics of REM

A

EEG similar to wakefulness but totally flaccid musculature.

76
Q

Night terrors vs. Nightmares vs. Dreams.

A

terrors are sudden arousal’s. nightmare and dreams are on in the same

77
Q

Dreams in early development

A

largee amount of REM and short sleep cycles in infants. and are able to slip immediately into REM. REM experiences may provide stimulation that is essential for maturation of the brain

78
Q

How do sleep patterns change over the span of life.

A

total sleep declines with age ;

79
Q

Evolutionary aspects of REM SLEEP and which animals don’t have REM

A

REM arose in a common ancestor to reptiles, birds, and mammals.

80
Q

4 functions of sleep

A
  1. niche adaptation
  2. Energy conservation- carnivores more than omnivores more than herbivores
  3. Body restoration
  4. memory consolidation.
81
Q

What are the different brain areas involved in sleep and what are their roles?

A
  1. basal forebrain generates SWS by regulating GABA ergic neurons that send signals to tuberomammillary nucleus that promotes sleep and brainstem
  2. Reticular formation wakes up the forebrain and is inhibited by the forebrain
  3. pontine system introduces REM at the subcoeruleus that uses GABA and Glycine to inhibit motor neurone
  4. Hypothalamic system uses hypocretin to keep slepp at bay and prevent the direct transition from wakefulness to REM . axons from here go to all of the above systems.
82
Q

Explain narcolepsy and sleep walking

A

narcolepsy tends to jump immediately into REM and can show sudden cataplexy. caused by an interference in hypocretin signalling

83
Q

What are the most common sleeping disorders

A

sleep enuresis. bed wetting. Somambulism. sleep walking. Rem Behavior disoder has lesions in subcoeruleus

84
Q

What is sleep apnea.

A

a sleep disorder where respiration slows or stops periodically

Brain and Behavior (2 decks)

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