3 - Global Futures Flashcards
(127 cards)
1
Q
4 types of questions about development from critical geography
A
ontological - what is development
ideological - how do we get there
epistemological - how do we ‘know’ and measure it
discursive - how do we talk about it, how do certain ideas become dominant and are legitimised, while others are sidelined
2
Q
development can be thought of as …. (CITE)
A
a continuous intellectual project as well as an ongoing material process rather than something that is measurable and quantifiable (McEwan, 2019)
3
Q
outline d/Development and CITE
A
(Cowen and Shenton 1995)
Immanent little d development - historical processes of change naturally unfolding
Intentional big D envelopment - deliberate efforts on the parts of various agencies to bring about change
4
Q
outline Hart (2001)’s view on d/D
A
Little ‘d’evelopment’
■ ‘“little d” development aka development of capitalism as a
geographically uneven, profoundly contradictory set of historical
processes’
Big Development
■ the formal, professional practices, policies and institutions of the
Development industry (e.g. World Bank, Oxfam etc)
■ colonial origins, but the sector expanded in size, visibility and
‘legitimacy’ in the post-WWII era
5
Q
outline the origin of development through the idea of ‘progress’
A
- 17th C new ideas about the relationship between
humanity, society, and nature - Challenging traditional worldviews, separation of
religion and state - Age of rationalism (reason) and empiricism
- World became knowable through the gathering of
empirical knowledge and reasoning. - Educated Europeans experienced an expansive sense
of power over nature - World became controllable – diseases, famines, etc
- New ways of organising society
- Emphasis on ‘universality’ – a ‘singular’ & linear
notion of what progress means – Eurocentric ideas
6
Q
what did Marquis de Condorcet say
A
technological advancements and
economical changes will enable change
in people’s moral and cultural values in
society– there can be progress (indeed,
continuous progress) in human affairs
7
Q
what were the implications of enlightenment thinking for development
A
- west is superior and more advanced along the linear path of progress and modernity
- ‘need to civilise rest of the world’
- ‘wealth extraction and knowledge production of the rest to progress further’
8
Q
Cowen and Shenton (1995) two developments
A
immanent and intentional
9
Q
what does Hart (2001) say about d and D
A
- little ‘d’ development
Refers to the broader, historical processes of capitalist development – economic, political, social change.
It is geographically uneven and contradictory, meaning some places benefit while others are left behind or harmed.
It’s linked with immanent development, meaning these processes unfold naturally over time without central planning.
- Big ‘D’ Development
Refers to the formal, intentional interventions – policies, institutions, aid, and programmes designed to “do development.”
Think: World Bank, IMF, NGOs, aid agencies.
This has colonial origins but expanded rapidly post-WWII, especially during the Cold War and decolonisation as a way to shape global politics and economies.
10
Q
What does little ‘d’ development refer to in Hart’s (2001) framework
A
The uneven, contradictory historical processes of capitalist development
11
Q
What does Big ‘D’ Development refer to in Hart’s (2001) theory?
A
formal practices, policies, and institutions of the Development industry (e.g., World Bank, NGOs).
12
Q
What are the origins of Big ‘D’ Development?
A
Colonial roots, expanded after WWII during the Cold War and decolonisation
13
Q
Who introduced the concepts of “immanent” and “intentional” development?
A
Cowen and Shenton (1995).
14
Q
What is immanent development?
A
Naturally unfolding historical processes of change (economic, political, social, etc.).
15
Q
What is intentional development?
A
Deliberate efforts by agencies (governments, NGOs, etc.) to bring about development
16
Q
How does Hart (200q) redefine little ‘d’ development
A
As the creative and destructive tendencies of global capitalism that require constant intervention.
17
Q
What is Polanyi’s “double movement” in capitalism
A
Market forces disembed the economy from society, while countermovements attempt to re-embed it for social protection
18
Q
How are Big ‘D’ and little ‘d’ development related in Hart’s (2001) view
A
Big ‘D’ is not external to little ‘d’; it is embedded within and helps manage capitalism’s dislocations
19
Q
What is the core argument of Hart’s (2001) d/Development dialectic
A
Development (Big ‘D’) is not oppositional to capitalism but works within it, often reinforcing capitalist accumulation
20
Q
what was the Point 4 program
A
inauguration speech of Harry Truman
start of big D development
US to help emerging countries just out of colonial rule. reconstruction in Europe
first mention of ‘less developed’
21
Q
What is modernity
A
a way of being in teh world
22
Q
Berman (1994) definition of modernity
A
release of the individual from bonds of tradition, with progressive differentiation of society.
innovation and change
associated with capitalism, secularisation, urbanisation, rationalisation
23
Q
When is ‘Big D’ development said to have begun
A
Post-WWII, especially after Truman’s 1949 ‘Point Four’ program.
24
Q
What did Enlightenment thinking promote in development discourse
A
Universalism, linear progress, Eurocentrism—used to justify imperialism and colonialism
25
How does McEwan (2019) challenge the development-colonialism divide
Argues that development did not begin when colonialism ended, and colonial processes persisted
26
What is Modernisation Theory
A linear, Eurocentric model of societal progression from ‘traditional’ to ‘modern’ societies
27
What is Walt Rostow’s Five-Stage Model of Economic Growth
1. Traditional Society
2. Preconditions for Take-off
3. Take-off
4. Drive to Maturity
5. Age of Mass Consumption
28
What’s a critique of Rostow’s model
Linear, ignores historical/structural differences; not universally applicable (e.g., India skipped industrial stage
29
What institutions were created at Bretton Woods (1944)?
World Bank, IMF, GATT (later WTO).
30
What was the aim of the Marshall Plan (1948–52)?
Reconstruct Europe, prevent communism, based on Keynesian economic principles
31
What role did the state play in modernization theory
Protector and planner – promoting investment, industrialisation, and economic development
32
What were the outcomes of state-led modernization
Successes (e.g. Asian Tigers), but also issues: corruption, inefficiency, environmental harm, lack of democracy
33
What are the three major critiques of modernization theory
1. Role of the State
2. Dependency Theory
3. Cultural Erasures
34
What is Dependency Theory
Argues that underdevelopment is structurally created by historical colonial exploitation and global capitalism
35
Who developed the idea of ‘Development of Underdevelopment
Andre Gunder Frank (1969).
36
What are cultural erasures in development discourse
Ignoring local knowledge, labeling traditional practices as backward, justifying external intervention
37
How does Hart (2001, 2010) differentiate between “little d” and “Big D” development
“little d”: The ongoing, uneven historical processes of capitalist development.
“Big D”: Institutionalised, professionalized development (e.g., World Bank, NGOs), largely emerging post-WWII during Cold War & decolonisation
38
What does Polanyi’s "double movement" mean in the context of d/Development
Market society dis-embeds the economy from society.
Countermovement arises to re-embed economy—e.g., through social protection and state intervention
39
According to Cowen and Shenton (1995), where does intentional development originate?
From early industrialisation and trusteeship ideologies:
Trustees (elites) were needed to "develop" the poor.
Based on Enlightenment and colonial thinking
40
What is the distinction between imperialism and colonialism? (McEwan, 2019)
Imperialism: Domination from afar; political/economic control by a metropole.
Colonialism: Direct imposition via settlement, land seizure, and local governance.
41
Why does McEwan argue colonialism doesn’t just “end”?
Because development continues colonial logics of intervention and control under a new guise.
42
What were the British and French colonial development efforts pre-WWII? and how this influence postwar development
UK: Colonial Development (1929) & Welfare Act (1940)
France: FIDES (1946) – fund for economic/social development
Normalised the idea that the ‘Orient’ needed specialised development, foreshadowing modernization theory.
43
How did development shift in 1960s-70s era?
Focus moved from Europe to the Third World.
UN declared “Decade of Development.”
U.S. support framed development as a bulwark against communism.
44
What are characteristics of ‘modern’ societies in Talcott Parsons' model?
Achievement-based
Rational
Universalistic
Entrepreneurial
Gesselschaft (impersonal social ties)
45
What are the three major conceptual criticisms of modernisation
The State: inefficient, corrupt, capitalist agent (vampire states)
Dependency Theory: underdevelopment is structural, historical (Frank, 1969)
Cultural Erasures: dismiss local knowledge, label traditional practices as inferior
46
what is a vampire state
Some governments in postcolonial settings have been labelled extractive, feeding off citizens rather than serving them (e.g., misusing foreign aid).
47
What characterised modernisation theories (1950s–70s)?
Psychological, social, and economic transformation via state-led development; based on Keynesian economics and Rostow's stages
48
What were some outcomes of modernisation theory by the late 1970s?
Rapid growth in Asian Tigers
Stalled growth elsewhere
Accusations of corruption, inefficiency
Rise of critiques like dependency theory
49
What did Andre Gunder Frank argue in The Development of Underdevelopment (1969)
Underdevelopment is not the absence of development but the outcome of colonial and capitalist integration into global markets
50
How did dependency theorists critique development
Argued that connection to capitalist metropoles caused underdevelopment in satellites (Frank, 1969
51
What are examples Frank used to support his theory
Colonial Chile and Brazil developed satellite regions
More capitalist integration → less development
52
What is meant by cultural erasures in development discourse
Reducing underdevelopment to internal causes (illiteracy, tradition), while ignoring colonial legacies and local knowledge systems
53
What were the effects of cultural erasure
Disregard for indigenous practices
Focus on external interventions
Justification for neoliberal 'saviour' narratives
54
What is neoliberalism, according to Peck (2001) and George (1999)?
Belief that wellbeing arises from reducing the state's role via deregulation, privatisation, and marketisation
55
What are "roll-back" and "roll-out" neoliberalism (Peck)
Roll-back: Dismantling state functions
Roll-out: Distributing responsibilities to civil society (e.g., NGOs)
56
Who coined the idea of the "counter-revolution" in development?
Toye (1993), describing the 1980s shift from state-led to market-led development
57
What were the three targets of the 'counter-revolution'?
(toye, 1993)
Over-extension of the public sector
Over-investment in physical (not human) capital
Price distortions from controls like tariffs and subsidies
58
What were Adam Smith’s main ideas in Wealth of Nations (1776)?
Invisible hand of the market
Division of labour
Critique of mercantilist protectionism
59
What did David Ricardo contribute
The theory of comparative advantage — countries should specialise in goods they produce most efficiently and trade for the rest.
60
Who were the Chicago Boys?
Chilean economists trained under Milton Friedman at University of Chicago; implemented neoliberal reforms under Pinochet.
61
What is meant by “Chile was a laboratory for neoliberal economic policies”?
Gillian Hart (2009) describes how Chile tested neoliberal reforms like privatisation, deregulation, and market opening post-1973 coup
62
: Name core principles of neoliberalism.
Free markets
Price deregulation
Privatisation
Free trade
Reduced state bureaucracy
63
Q: What contributed to the rise of neoliberalism in the Global South?
Oil crisis and stagflation
Debt crisis in 1982
Failures of ISI (Import Substitution Industrialisation)
Weak infrastructure & bureaucracies
64
What is the Washington Consensus?
A set of neoliberal reforms (liberalisation, privatisation, globalisation) promoted by IMF, World Bank, and US Treasury.
65
How was the Washington Consensus implemented
Via Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs):
Cut public spending
Open to foreign investment
Reduce tariffs
66
List major critiques of neoliberalism
“One size fits all” approach
Cuts in health and education
Rising inequality
Environmental degradation
Undermines sovereignty
67
What happened in Ghana and Uganda during SAPs
Civil servants couldn’t afford minimum diets
Families needed several times minimum wage to meet food needs
68
what did SAPs do to Mozambique?
IMF forced reduction of export tax on cashews
Indian processors outcompeted local factories
9,000+ workers lost jobs
69
What was the UNDP's position on SAPs
“It is short-sighted to balance budgets by unbalancing the lives of people” (Human Development Report, 1990).
70
What were Joseph Stiglitz’s criticisms of SAPs
Criticised IMF’s ‘shock therapy’
Emphasised role of institutions and imperfect markets
(Globalisation and its Discontents, 2002)
71
What does the post-development critique challenge?
challenges not just how to do development, but what development is—as a political, philosophical, and Foucauldian project
72
How does Ziai (2004) define development as discourse
A historically situated mental and linguistic structure that reflects power relations and legitimizes certain ideas while sidelining others
73
What is meant by “alternatives to development and cite
A rejection of the entire development paradigm—not just proposing new development strategies, but abandoning the concept altogether (Escobar, 1995)
74
Who are key intellectual influences in post-development thinking
Franz Fanon – decolonizing: newly
independent countries should not
imitate Western countries
* Mahatma Gandhi – self-reliance,
local, cottage, Satyagraha
* Michel Foucault – relations
between discourse and power –
how we speak and write about
things
* Ivan Illich – Development leads to
dependence on ‘experts’ and their
ideologies and values – sidelining
other ideologies
75
How does Escobar describe development discourse and cite
regime of knowledge and power that constructs the “Third World” as a site of intervention, producing “subject peoples” (Escobar, 1995:
76
What does Escobar mean by “invention of underdevelopment
That after 1945, countries were defined by Western discourse as poor, stagnant, and in need of development—justifying intervention
77
How is development a form of colonial discourse
Like Orientalism (Said), development creates and controls how people are seen, spoken of, and governed
78
What are the 4 core features of post-development according to Escobar (1995)
Rejection of development paradigm
Emphasis on local knowledge
Critique of scientific discourses
Support for grassroots movements
79
What does it mean to “render development technical
Converting political issues into technical problems solvable by experts, excluding questions of power and inequality (Ferguson, 1994)
80
What is Li’s (2007) critique of technocratic development
Experts focus on improving “the poor’s capacity” rather than addressing how one group impoverishes another
81
What are development subjectivities and cite
Development conditions people to see themselves as “incomplete,” internalizing development as a means to construct identity, rights, and purpose (Escobar, 1992)
82
What does Esteva (1992) mean by the "colonisation of dreams"?
Non-Western people were taught to desire the Western ideal (the American dream), even when it became a nightmare in reality
83
How did Sachs (1992) describe the end of development?
He called for writing the obituary of development, declaring it the end of the “age of development
84
What role did social movements play in post-development resistance
They formed new, flexible identities grounded in daily life, resisting essentialist political categories like class or gender
85
How do Dependency Theory and Post-Development differ
Dependency: proposes alternative development (e.g. socialism)
Post-Development: proposes alternatives to development (rejects the concept itself)
(Ziai, 2015)
86
What is the critique of power in post-development
Goes beyond capitalism to critique modernity’s knowledge systems, discourse, and identity construction
87
What are critiques of Escobar’s position
Oversimplifies development as all bad
May also homogenize local cultures
Risks romanticizing poverty and rejecting modernity outright (Corbridge & Lehmann)
88
What are six critiques of post-development? (Ziai, 1992)
Unconditional rejection of modernity – Dismissing all development and modernisation ignores the material improvements many people still want.
Romanticisation of the ‘noble savage’ – Idealising traditional or indigenous lifestyles oversimplifies complex local realities and denies agency.
Cultural relativism – Treating all cultural practices as equally valid risks tolerating oppression and blocks cross-cultural critique.
Paternalism – PD can impose its own vision of the “good life,” telling people what they should want, just like mainstream development
Depoliticisation & reliance on movements – Over-reliance on social movements downplays the importance of politics, institutions, and state power.
Methodological deficits – PD lacks empirical data and practical alternatives, weakening its influence beyond academic critique.
89
What is the central question Post-Development poses about development
Not just how to do development, but what development is, questioning its purpose, effects, and ideological roots
90
How does Ziai (2004) define development discourse?
As a “historically situated mental and linguistic structure” shaped by power and interests, determining what counts as valid knowledge
91
What is meant by “alternatives to development
complete rejection of the development paradigm, not just new strategies within it (Escobar, 1995)
92
How does the historical critique of development evolve across the decades
1950s: Modernisation = development brings progress
1960s: Dependency theory = underdevelopment caused by global capitalism
1980s–90s: Post-Development = development is an ideology and invention (Slide 9)
93
Who are the key intellectual influences on Post-Development
Frantz Fanon: warned against imitating Western models
Mahatma Gandhi: localism and self-reliance
Foucault: discourse and power
Ivan Illich: critiques of expert-led development
94
What is meant by “development sets the rules of the game”?
Development discourse determines who can speak, with what authority, and defines what counts as problems and valid solutions
95
What happened in the ProSAVANA project in Mozambique
Agri-business actors imposed an imagined similarity with Brazil’s Cerrado, legitimising land grabs despite ecological and social differences (Shankland & Gonçalves, 2016)
96
What does Ferguson mean by development solutions being "in the bag"?
Development practitioners come with pre-set technical solutions, and manipulate how places are defined to fit those solutions
97
Give three examples of anti-development grassroots movements
Narmada Bachao Andolan (India): anti-dam movement
Zapatistas (Mexico): indigenous resistance
MST (Brazil): landless workers' movement
98
What was the Chipko movement
forest conservation movement in the Indian Himalayas where local women hugged trees to prevent logging
99
What does the War on Want report (Curtis, 2016) describe as a “new colonialism
British-backed corporate exploitation of $1 trillion worth of African mineral resources, echoing 19th-century extractive colonialism
100
How does the Alberta Tar Sands case in Canada reflect settler colonialism
Indigenous livelihoods were disrupted, environmental degradation occurred, and U.S. pipelines like Keystone XL ignored indigenous consent
101
How was Raquel Rolnik’s UN report on UK housing received?
She faced racist and sexist backlash, revealing how development knowledge is still seen as the domain of white, Western experts
102
What is meant by postcolonialism, according to Sharp (2009)
The continuation of colonial power — materially, discursively, and representationally — in the post-colonial period
103
How does McEwan (2019) describe postcolonialism
After colonialism
As a condition
As ethical-political theory (identity, race, gender)
As literary critique
As anti-colonialism
104
What is the difference between colonialism and coloniality? (Maldonado-Torres, 2016
Colonialism = historical event (settlement, direct rule)
Coloniality = enduring power structures and knowledge systems shaped by colonialism, still active today
105
Define decoloniality
The dismantling of colonial power/knowledge structures through counter-discourses and practices
106
How are modernity and coloniality linked
Western modernity was built on colonial structures and justifies its dominance through “colonial universalism
107
What does postcolonial theory aim to dismantle
Epistemic coloniality — knowledge systems based on Eurocentric, often anthropological ways of “knowing” the Global South (Mbembe, 2016)
108
what is the goal of decolonial theory
dismantle both epistemic and material coloniality and go beyond critique toward transformation (Tuck and Yang, 2012)
109
What critique does Mawdsley (2008) offer on China–Africa coverage?
Tendency to homogenise China
Portrays Africans as passive victims
Ignores Northern actors’ roles
110
What does the term “new scramble for Africa” critique?
return of extractive relationships—this time through China, corporations, and geopolitical debt traps
111
What are some risks of decoloniality efforts?
Tokenism or symbolic gestures
Oversimplifying representation
Homogenising indigenous voices
Practical limits of reparations
112
What is the issue with indigenous land rights?
Colonial legal frameworks (e.g., terra nullius, Locke’s property theory) make it hard to claim land in Western terms
113
What is the “White Gaze” in development and cite
white Western conceptualisation of progress that dominates global development thinking (Pailey, 2019)
114
What is epistemic decoloniality
Challenging dominant discourses
Recovering marginalised voices
Critiquing binaries (North/South, West/Rest
115
What are the five meanings of "postcolonialism" identified by McEwan (2019)
A time period after formal colonialism
A condition of postcolonial societies
An ethical and political theory (race, gender, identity)
A literary critique of representations of the ‘colonised’
A broad anti-colonial political project (economic, cultural, political)
116
What colonial myth does Heart of Darkness illustrate?
Africa as savage, irrational, and in need of European civilisation — reinforcing the “White Saviour” complex and racial hierarchies
117
How did Henry Morton Stanley reinforce colonial stereotyp
He described Africans as “savages” needing rescue — ignoring historical African trade with the Middle East and self-governance
118
What is the difference between decolonisation and decoloniality
Decolonisation = formal political independence
Decoloniality = epistemic and cultural break from colonial systems of thought and governance
119
What does the term “colonial modernity” imply
That European modernity and colonial violence are inseparable — modern power, being, and knowledge were built through colonial hierarchies
120
What does Tuck and Yang (2012) mean by “decolonisation is not a metaphor”?
True decolonisation in settler states requires return of land, not just symbolic gestures or discourse
121
What is data coloniality?
Tech corporations extract and control data, especially from marginalised populations, reinforcing colonial-like control
122
What do discourses do in the context of forest policy?
They produce/reproduce ideas and power relations about what forests are, what they’re for, and how they should be governed
123
What shapes global forest discourse
Theories: Malthusianism, Clementsian ecology, modernisation
Institutions: World Bank, UN, NGOs, media
Language: “crisis”, “triple win”
Values: preservationism vs. utilitarianism; wilderness as separate from people
124
What is an environmental narrative?
: A simplified story explaining environmental change, shaped by ideology (e.g. “deforestation is caused by slash-and-burn farming and poverty”)
125
Why are environmental narratives powerful
They simplify complexity, justify interventions, and shape policy — even if not always accurate (Latour, 2004: “Nothing is as concise as a myth”)
126
What was Frederick Lugard’s “dual mandate”?
1) Improve indigenous people’s wellbeing;
2) Extract resources like timber, rubber, palm oil for export
127
How were forests made “valuable” during colonialism
Created forest departments and reserves
Introduced plantations for export (e.g. teak, mahogany)
Violent evictions of indigenous people
“Moralising taxes” to force cash economy entry
