3 - Issues And Debates Flashcards
1
Q
Define androcentrism
A
Dominated or centred by men - results in a male-world view.
Since the origin of psychology it has very much been male dominated, with many male psychologists.
This may lead to alpha/beta bias.
2
Q
What is gynocentrism?
A
The female version of androcentrism
3
Q
Define alpha bias
A
Exaggerating the difference between men and women.
Consequently, theories that are alpha biased devalue one gender compared to another.
4
Q
Define beta bias
A
Minimising the difference between men and women. Consequently, the needs of one gender (usually women coz they’re shit) are ignored. Eg: Asch.
5
Q
Define universality and give an example
A
Theories applying to all people, regardless of gender or culture. Eg: facial expressions, reciprocity.
6
Q
Explain the example research on alpha bias
A
Freud viewed femininity as failed masculinity (I mean he’s not wrong) therefore exaggerating the difference between men and women. His concept of penis envy and the Oedipus complex would suggest that women are morally inferior to men as they cannot fully develop a super-ego - they have a weaker identification with their mother.
7
Q
Explain the example research on beta bias
A
Stress research mainly focuses on men as variations in female hormone levels would make research more difficult.
It is assumed what is true for males will therefore be true for females from the male only research.
Taylor (‘02) challenges this finding the female stress response to be “tend and befriend” rather than the male response of “fight or flight.”
8
Q
Give an example of gender bias
A
Kohlberg (1973) developed a theory of moral reasoning which has been very influential. He only based his theory on men, and when women use the same test they came out as less morally developed than men. Gilligan (1982) found that women favoured care rather than justice, so they’re not less morally developed than men, just different.
9
Q
Explain what Rosenthal (1996) concluded about bias in research methods
A
Male researchers are more friendly to female participants, thus male participants do not perform as well.
10
Q
Explain what feminists argue about bias in research methods
A
Lab experiments disadvantage females and results in real life situation are more similar to men than in lab settings
11
Q
List the 3 types of bias in research methods
A
Institutional sexism
Use of standardised procedures in research studies
Dissemination of research results
12
Q
Explain institutional sexism
A
Men predominate at senior researcher level.
Research agenda follows male concerns, female concerns may be marginalised or ignored.
13
Q
Explain the use of standardised procedures in research studies
A
Men and women might respond differently to research situations. Men and women might be treated differently by researchers.
They could create artificial differences or mask real ones.
14
Q
Explain dissemination of research results
A
There is a publishing bias towards positive results.
Research that finds gender differences are more likely to get published than that which doesn’t.
This exaggerates extent of gender differences.
15
Q
Define reverse alpha bias
A
Showing the difference between men and women but emphasising the value of women
16
Q
What did Cornwell et al (2013) conclude
A
Girls outperform boys on reading, while boys score at least as well on maths and science tests as girls.
Boys who perform equally as well as girls on reading, maths and science tests are graded less favourably by their teachers.
17
Q
Explain what avoiding beta bias is
A
Equal treatment under law has allowed greater access for women to educate etc.
18
Q
What did Hare-Mustin and Marececk (1988) say about avoiding beta bias?
A
It draws attention away from special needs of women and differences between men and women. For example, equal rights to parental leave ignores the biological demand of pregnancy, childbirth and breast feeding, and subsequently disadvantages women.
19
Q
Evaluate gender bias research
A
+ reflexivity - researchers have noticed the effect of their own values and assumptions on their work. They embrace it as a crucial and critical aspect of the research process.
Eg: Dambrin and Lambert (‘08) include reflection on how gender-related experiences influenced their work. This increases application as it leads to greater awareness of personal biases in research.
+ feminist psychologists - propose how gender bias can be avoided. Worrel and Remer (‘92) suggested criteria researchers can follow to avoid gender bias. Women should be studied in real life contexts and fully participate in research (field studies). This way of doing research may be preferable and less gender biased than lab based research.
- promotes sexism in the research process - lack of women higher up in psychology might not be addressed, with more male researchers being likely to have their work published. Psychology could be supporting a form of institutional sexism which creates bias in both therapy and research - validity.
- gender bias studies - may creat misleading information about female behaviour. It may provide a scientific reason to deny women opportunities based on these studies. They can affect women in real world situations; this lowers application.
20
Q
Define culture bias
A
The tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions
21
Q
Define ethnocentrism
A
Seeing things from the point of view of ourselves and our social groups
22
Q
Define cultural relativism
A
The view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates
23
Q
Define the research approach associated with ethnocentrism
A
Imposed ETIC - when a technique or theory developed in one culture is used to study the behaviour in another culture
24
Q
Define the research approach associated with cultural relativism
A
EMIC - when individual cultures are studied and generalisations are only made within that culture
25
Give an example of the imposed ETIC approach
Ainsworth’s strange situation - developed in the U.K. and used to compare attachments in different cultures
26
Give an example of the EMIC approach
In the DSM-IV-TR ‘koro’ is listed as an episode of sudden and intense anxiety that the penis will recede into the body and possibly cause death; it is mostly experienced by Chinese men
27
Some have argues that in a world of global communication and interconnectedness, culture bias is no longer such an issue - why?
We are becoming more interconnected, so imposed ETIC doesn’t matter. Takano and Osaka (‘99) found that 14/15 studies that compared USA and Japan found no evidence of traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism. This increases generalisability and validity as it suggests that culture bias is becoming less of an issue
28
Some behaviours are universal and therefore an EMIC approach would not be needed - what are the 2 examples?
Reciprocity
| Facial expressions
29
What does “challenging implicit assumptions” mean? Why is this a strength of cross cultural bias?
When we use other cultures to realise some stuff isn’t what we naturally presumed. Some knowledge and concepts we presume/take for granted aren’t shared by other cultures; this promotes sensitivity and increases validity.
30
Evaluate culture bias
- there is a range of evidence to show cultural bias is a problem
in psychology. Eg: Humanist theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. This approach is based on Western culture and values independence and striving to achieve self-actualisation. These ideals do not necessarily apply to other non-Western cultures. This is a problem because the theory attempts to be Universal and if applied to other cultures can be used to judge behaviour. This may therefore misrepresent a person’s experience. This suggests the theory is only valid in the culture from which it came. Therefore, psychologists need to specify the context of their research and theory and the population it can be applied to.
+ new research methods are reducing the impact of cultural bias. By understanding the impact of cultural bias, researchers can make
improvements to research. One way of working toward Universal theories taking an ‘etic’ approach is to carry out research with indigenous researchers in each culture. Buss carried out research into mate preferences in 37 cultures. In each culture they had 3 local researchers – 1 translated the questionnaire from English, the second translated responses from the locals back into English, and the third looked for and resolved any discrepancies. This meant that the research had greater validity. Therefore it is possible to carry out research looking for Universal laws whilst reducing cultural bias.
+ Another way of tackling cultural bias is to improve sampling
methods. Psychology has a strong Western influence and most studies referred to in European text books are American or European based on participants from those cultures. This means that psychology as a discipline under-respresents non-Western cultures. As researchers have greater awareness of cultural bias, research can be improved by selecting samples to represent different cultural groups. This will reduce cultural bias and increase the validity when making universal
theories. Therefore, cultural bias can be reduced.
- cultural bias is a serious problem because it can lead to serious
consequences. One example of negative consequences resulted from the use of Army IQ tests in USA before WW1. Questions reflected an imposed etic, using Western concepts to assess people of different cultures. Results of these suggested (incorrectly) that African Americans had the lowest mental age. There were negative consequences in that the findings contributed to racial stereotypes that discriminated against African Americans. Such research is socially sensitive and has ethical implications. Therefore, research into characteristics like intelligence needs to be undertaken with care and with culturally appropriate materials and questions to prevent negative effects for certain groups of people.
31
Define free will
The idea that we have choices in how we act. It separates out what is the intention of an individual from what has been created by other causes. This means that we are “self-determining” and free from the causal influence of the past.
32
Define determinism
All behaviour is controlled by either internal or external forces. This means behaviour is predictable.
33
List the 6 types of determinism
```
Scientific
Psychic
Soft
Hard
Environmental
Biological
```
34
Define scientific determinism
The scientific emphasis on causal explanations states that every event in the universe has a cause, and that causes can be explained using general laws.
35
Define biological determinism
Behaviour is determined by our genes, and subsequently neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine.
36
Define psychic determinism
Behaviour is determined by innate drives and early experiences
37
Define environmental determinism
Behaviour is caused by previous experience, through classical and operant conditioning
38
Define soft determinism
A version of determinism which allows for some free will
39
Define hard determinism
The view that all behaviour can be predicted and there is no free will
40
Explain which approach is considered free will and why
Cognitive
William James concluded that soft determinism, even though there are determining forces that act upon us, it does not detract from the freedom we have to make rational choices in everyday situations.
41
Explain which 3 approaches are considered determinism and why
Psychodynamic - psychic determinism
Biological - biological determinism
Behavioural - environmental determinism
Skinner - “free will is an illusion”
42
Evaluate determinism
+ the prediction and control of human behaviour has led to treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefitted many eg: psychotherapeutic drug treatment in controlling and managing schizophrenia - application.
+ neurological studies - Chun Siong Soon et al showed that brain activity that determines the outcome of simple choices predates our knowledge of having made such a choice - validity.
- inconsistent with the justice system - offenders are held morally accountable for their actions - application.
- unfalsifiable - the view that there is always a cause of behaviour (it just may not be discovered yet) can’t be proven wrong - so maybe the theory is not as scientific as it first appears - validity.
- no face validity - we have free will everyday.
43
Evaluate free will
+ face validity - everyday experiences. High L.O.C have a high degree of influence over events and their own behaviour.
Roberts et al (‘00) found that adolescents who had strong belief of fatalism (low L.O.C) were at greater risk of depression - validity.
+ even if we don’t have free will, the idea has a positive impact on mind and behaviour - application.
- Libet (‘85) and Soon (‘08) have demonstrated our brain activity that determines simple choice outcomes may predate our knowledge of having made said choice. The left/right hand button study - validity.
44
What is nature?
The idea that behaviour is caused by innate characteristics - the psychological biological characteristics we are born with. Behaviour is therefore determined by biology.
This is a deterministic view - it suggests all behaviour is determined by hereditary factors: inherited characteristics, or genetic make-up we are born with. All possible behaviours are said to be present from conception.
Genes provide the blueprint for all behaviours; some present from birth, others pre-programmed to emerge with age (maturing.)
45
What are those who believe in the nature argument called?
Nativists
46
What is nurture?
The belief that an individual’s behaviour is determined by the environment - the things people teach them, the things they observe, and because of the different situations they are in.
This is a deterministic view - proposes all human behaviour is the result of interactions with the environment.
We are born an empty vessel (tabula rasa) - waiting to be filled up by experiences gained from environmental interaction.
There is no limit to what we can achieve - it depends on the quality of the external influences and not the genes. The quality of the environment is key. You can become anything provided the environment is right.
47
What are those who believe in the nurture argument called?
Empiricists
48
What is the hereditability coefficient?
This is a tool used to assess heredity.
| It classifies the extent to which a behaviour is caused by genetics (nature).
49
What is the hereditability coefficient for IQ and what does this suggest?
Around 0.5, suggesting environment and genetics are important factors in intelligence.
50
Put 5 approaches in order from nature to nurture
Biological, psychodynamic, cognitive, humanistic, behaviourist
51
Explain some supporting studies regarding the nature argument
Twin studies - the Jim twins. 2 men reunited at 39 years old after being separated since birth. Both Jim’s married twice, first called Linda, second Betty, both good at maths and DT, not spelling, heavy smokers, Chevrolet, security jobs.
Bouchard and Mcgue
Gottesman and Shields (‘76)
Chomsky (‘68)
52
List some supporting studies regarding the nurture argument
Bandura, Harlow, Skinner, Pavlov, Milgram, Asch, Little Albert (Watson and Raynor 1920)
53
Explain the diathesis-stress model
Diathesis-stress model - genetic vulnerabilities are triggered by the environment. Behaviour is often a result of the interaction between nature and nurture, and it is often impossible to separate the causes. Tienari et al looked at 19,000 adopted children with all backgrounds and compared to controls. They looked at adoptive parent child rearing and implications for schizophrenia. They found high criticism and conflict influenced schizophrenia. But only in those with pre-existing genetic links.
54
Explain how nature affects nurture
Genetic factors create an infants’ micro environment.
Rutted and Rutter (‘93) described how aggressive children think and behave in ways that lead other children to respond to them in a hostile manner. A child who is genetically more aggressive might provoke an aggressive microenvironment. This then reinforces the child’s antisocial view of the world, and continues to be aggressive to others.
55
Explain how nurture affects nature
Maguire et al (2000).
The increased time being a London taxi driver means the posterior hippocampus volume increases. The posterior hippocampus stores special representations of environments and navigational skills. The brain has the capacity for plasticity (structure of the brain can alter in response to environment demands (progressed skills)
56
Explain epigenetics
This refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code. This is caused by interactions with the environment and what we encounter, this tells us what genes to ignore and which ones to use. This in turn influences the genetic code of our children. This adds a third element to the debate about life experience of previous generations. Dias and Ressler (‘14) reinforced a fear of the smell of acetophenone for rats. Children and grandchildren inherited this fear.
57
Explain the interactionist approach
The belief that nature and nurture are inextricably linked. It is now important we understand how nature and nurture work together - this is known as an interactionist approach. Hardwired systems are passed on through heredity, such as parts of the brain for memory and language, by the system is flexible and responds to the environment. The interdependence of nature-nurture is adaptive.
58
Explain the applications of the nature argument
Drug therapy - treat behavioural or psychological problems that have a physiological origin.
Eg: SSRI’s - depression, Ritalin - ADHD.
59
Explain the applications of the nurture argument
If behaviour is susceptible to environmental influences we need to consider how we adapt our environment.
Eg: to promote helping behaviours, enhance learning, reduce aggression and decrease criminality.
60
Define reductionism
The theory that all complex systems can be completely understood in terms of their components
61
Explain the 3 types of reductionism
Reductionism does not ignore other explanations!
(SPEC) Biological reductionism - human behaviour reduced to a physical level. A popular way to explain mental illness.
(SPEC) Environmental reductionism - behaviourists would argue all behaviour is explained in terms of a stimulus/response.
Experimental reductionism - reducing complex behaviours to isolated variables.
62
Define the levels of explanation
There are different ways of viewing the same phenomena in psychology; some are more reductionist than others. A holistic view will show things from many perspectives but viewing each level on its own gets more specific and scientific as you go down.
63
List the levels of explanation, stating which end is holistic and which end is reductionist.
```
Social-cultural - holistic end
Psychological
Physical
Physiological
Neurochemical - reductionist/simple
```
64
Define holistic
The theory that the parts of any whole cannot exist and cannot be understood except in their relation to the whole.
Eg: humanistic perspective.
65
Explain 2 examples or holism
Humanism - a psychological perspective that emphasises the study of the whole person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behaviour not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving.
Gestalt - a school of thought that looks at the human kind and behaviour as a whole. When trying to make sense of the world around us. Gestalt psychology suggests that we do not simply focus on every small component.
66
Give the levels of explanations for OCD
Social-cultural - compulsions seem irrational
Psychological - experience of obsessive thoughts
Physical - physically resting a behaviour (eg: cleaning)
Physiological - hypersensitivity of basal ganglia
Neurochemical - low levels of serotonin
67
Give the levels of explanation for depression
Social-cultural - depressed people are anti-social and avoid social contact
Psychological - low moods
Physical - low activity levels
Physiological - affects area of the brain like the amygdala and thalamus
Neurochemical - low levels of serotonin
68
Evaluate reductionism
+ easier to explain behaviour in concrete and concise terms
+ consistent with the scientific approach
+ provides a more complete picture
+ high level of predictive power
+ breaking phenomena down into smaller components meant the empirical method can be used
- context is important in understanding meaning of behaviour
- focus on a single level of explanation leaves out other levels of explanation
69
Evaluate holism
+ provides a more complete picture
+ accepts and deals with the complex nature of behaviour
+ behaviour is influenced by many factors, so holistic explanations may be more useful
- more hypothetical - not based on empirical evidence
- it is difficult to investigate the many differing types and levels of explanation
- lacks predictive power of more scientific explanations
- neglects importance of biological influences
70
Define the idiographic approach
Understanding behaviour through studying individual cases.
They don’t generalise as they understand we’re all unique.
Behaviour must be understood in terms of subjective experience - what it means to the individual can explain what a behaviour means - a detached observer’s explanation is worthless. Data is qualititative
71
Define the nomothetic approach
Understanding behaviour through developing general laws that apply to all people. The main feature is similarities between people and laws governing behaviour.
It uses scientific methods and quantitative data. Group averages are statistically analysed and predictions are made.
There are 3 kinds of general laws:
Classification (DMS)
Establishing principles - conformity and obedience
Establishing - IQ
72
What are the 3 kinds of general laws?
Classification (DMS)
Establishing principles - conformity and obedience
Establishing - IQ
73
Explain an example of idiographic
Humanistic approach
Rogers and Maslow documented the conscious experience of the individual.
They were interested in investigating unique experiences in human behaviour rather than producing general laws of behaviour.
74
Explain an example of nomothetic
Asch, Milgram etc.
DSM - establishes behaviour through sheer volume of data.
Establishes principles: obedience, conformity
Establishes dimensions: IQ
75
Explain an example of both idiographic and nomothetic
Idk
76
Evaluate the idiographic approach
+ can provide hypotheses for future scientific study
+ develop a holistic understanding of individual
+ gain detailed and informative descriptions of behaviour
+ can uncover causes for behaviour not indemnified using nomothetic methods - high validity
- cannot generalise to wider population
- methods are subjective, flexible and unstandardised so replication, prediction and control of behaviour is difficult - low reliability
77
Evaluate the nomothetic approach
+ can generalise to a wider population
+ methods are objective, measurable and can be verified so replications, predictions and control of behaviour is easy
- generalised laws and principles may not apply to an individual
- understanding is often superficial - same score on personality test, but different answers - low validity
78
What other evaluation point can you use for the idiographic and nomothetic approaches? (That doesn’t say one is better than the other)
They complement each other - Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - nomothetic
The Kolochova twins then developed this - they were an idiographic study that further researched maternal deprivation.
A large scale theory can develop/be developed by a small scale
79
Define socially sensitive research
Any psychological research that has ethical implications that go beyond the research situation and affect people or groups in the wider society.
80
What are the 3 things ethical implications of psychological research concern?
The way the research impacts the participants
The way the findings are communicated to the public
How the findings are used
81
Explain Sieber and Stanley’s 4 aspects of the research process
(1988)
1) the research questions: how questions are phrased can be unethical - eg: is gayness inherited? - this adds scientific credibility to pre-existing prejudice.
2) conduction of research and treatment of participants: eg: confessing to murder. The main concern is the confidentiality of the information collected.
3) the institutional context: the research funded by a private institution that will misuse the data. Eg: all trials’ campaign.
4) interpretation and application of findings: research findings being used for purposes other than it was meant. Eg: the use of IQ test results o determine inferiority.
82
Explain privacy as an ethical issue in socially sensitive research identified by Sieber and Stanley
During the research process, a skilled investigator may extract more information from participants than they intended to give. Some research (eg: AIDS research) may lead to social policies that are an invasion of people’s private lives (eg: through compulsory testing)
83
Explain confidentiality as an ethical issue in socially sensitive research identified by Sieber and Stanley
Participants may be less willing to divulge information in the future confidentiality is breached and further related research would be compromised.
84
Explain valid methodology as an ethical issue in socially sensitive research identified by Sieber and Stanley
In cases of poor methodology (and therefore invalid findings) scientists must be aware of these problems, but the media and public may not, and thus poor studies might shape important social policy to the detriment of those groups represented by the research.
85
Explain deception as an ethical issue in socially sensitive research identified by Sieber and Stanley
This includes self-deception, whereby research may lead to form untrue stereotypes (eg: believing women are les good at maths) which then affects one’s own performance.
86
Explain informed consent as an ethical issue in socially sensitive research identified by Sieber and Stanley
Potential participants may not always comprehended what is involved
87
Explain equitable treatment as an ethical issue in socially sensitive research identified by Sieber and Stanley
All participants should be treated in an equitable manner as resources which are vital to the participants’ well-being (eg: educational opportunities) are not withheld from one group whilst being available to another.
88
Explain scientific freedom as an ethical issue in socially sensitive research identified by Sieber and Stanley
The scientist has a duty to engage in research but at the same time has an obligation not to harm participants as well as institutions in society
89
Explain ownership of data as an ethical issue in socially sensitive research identified by Sieber and Stanley
Some of the problems with determining ownership involve the sponsorship of the research (eg: abuniversity department or commercial organisation) and the public accessibility of this data.
90
Explain values as an ethical issue in socially sensitive research identified by Sieber and Stanley
Psychologists differ in their orientation towards subjective (idiographic) approaches and more objective (scientific) approaches. Sensitive issues arise when there is a clash in such values between the scientist and recipient of the research.
91
Explain risk/benefit ratio as an ethical issue in socially sensitive research identified by Sieber and Stanley
Risks or costs should be minimised, but problems arise in determining risks as well as benefits.
92
Give 2 examples of socially sensitive research
Attachment - Schaffer and Emerson - stay at home mums
| Face validity - free will vs. determinism
93
Evaluate ethical implications of research studies and theory
+ benefits of socially sensitive research - Sandra Scare (‘88) argues that studies of unrepresented groups and issues may promote a greater sensitivity and understand of them. This helps reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance.
- socially sensitive research can increase discrimination - 1020’# USA used research to sterilise people. This increases discrimination.
- publication bias - publishers choose to publish positive not negative results - this means they are not sharing all possible findings.
- some research may seem harmless but could have socially sensitive consequences. Eg: 1950’s study into persuasion of subliminal messages was used by marketing companies to advertise products, claiming sales would increase when images when shown. Later, they revealed to made up; this is research that manipulated public ethics.
