3. Qualitative research Flashcards
(37 cards)
Key functions of qualitative research
Contextual: describing ‘what’s there’ - experiences, attitudes; the nature of something.
Explanatory: exploring why something is happening.
Evaluation: assessing how well interventions work.
Generative: developing theories/strategies/actions/support.
Where can we obtain naturally occurring data from?
> Conversations and discourses
> Observations (participant/non-participant)
> Documents, texts, images, media
How can we generate [qualitative] data?
> Interviews
○ Structured/in-depth/narrative
○ Focus groups
> Questionnaires
List some sampling stratgies
> Convenience sampling
Random sampling
Purposive sampling
Pros and cons of convenience sampling
PROS:
○ Participants are easy to identify and contact
○ Efficient and straight forwards
CONS
○ Unlikely to represent wider population
○ May not include all the characteristics relevant to the research question
○ —> results may be difficult to generalise
Pros and cons of random sampling
PROS:
○ Every member of the population has an equal chance of selection
○ Reflects the characteristics of the wider population (if the sample is large enough) –> generalisable results.
○ Reduced risk of researcher bias.
CONS:
○ Large sample may be unrealistic for qualitative data collection and analysis.
○ May under represent groups/characteristics relevant to research questions.
Pros and cons of purposive sampling
PROS:
○ Participants are selected according to the characteristics important to the research question.
○ Requires expert knowledge of the population; aims to reflect diversity within the population.
○ Highly relevant data.
○ Sampling strategies can be adapted as research progresses.
CONS:
○ Risk of researcher bias.
○ Results may not be generalisable.
What needs to be considered with sample sizes?
> Sample sizes in qualitative research tend to be small – so they need to be carefully chosen.
> The aim is to reach ‘saturation’ (where themes and patterns in the data are repeating). Not looking to draw statistical inferences.
> Budgets and resources: qualitative analysis is time consuming.
List types of interviews
> Unstructured
Semi-structured
Structured
what are the characteristics of Unstructured interviews
- Not set lists of questions or topics
- Participants tell their story in their own way
- Narrative or biographical data
- Deeper understanding of personal and life experiences
what are the characteristics of semi-structured interviews
- Flexible use of topic guide
- Explore emergent themes are concepts
- Probe for clarification and further information
- Explore respondent’s perspectives and opinions in depth
what are the characteristics of structured interviews
- Standarised set of questions
- Concepts defined in advance
- Fact finding, hypothesis testing and large surveys
- Direct comparisons between responses
What are topic guides and what can they include?
> Aid the memory of the interviewer
> Topic headings and subheadings (and prompts if needed)
Topics related directly to the research question
Not a rigid list of questions; flexible order and flexible ‘conversational’ wording
How can we identify topics (for a topic guide)?
> Familiarisation with subject area e.g. literature review, discussions with stakeholders
> Brainstorming e.g. team discussion, pilot investigation
> Reflect on research beliefs and assumptions, identify and minimise research bias
How can we develop a topic guide?
Broad structure:
○ Intro -> opening topics -> core topics -> closing topics
Wording:
○ Single words or phrases rather than questions
- Easy to read at a glance
- Flexible
Natural language:
○ Minimise researcher bias
○ Consider potential misunderstandings
Follow up questions/ prompts/ other instructions to the interviewer may be helpful
Things to consider when starting an interview
- Ensure ideal physical conditions • Quiet private space • Seating arrangements • Recording equipment set up and tested - Initial introduction • Recap project aims and outline • Reconfirm consent - Reassure about confidentiality and anonymity
Things to consider during the interview
- Ask clear questions
- Give respondent time to reply
- Follow the topic guide flexibly
- Make notes of issues you would like to return to and explore further
- Probe until you think that the respondent has replied to the question as fully as possible
- Show interest in what respondent says
- Avoid leading questions
- Don’t express your opinion on responses
- Use neutral responses
Things to consider when ending the interview
- Try to end on a positive and complete note
- Use closing questions
- Thank the interviewee, re-affirm confidentiality
- Explain again how the information they have given will be used
List some useful interview probes
- Encouraging respondent to continue through the silence and nodding or min response
- Inviting the respondent to elaborate
- Stimulating further thought
- Giving permission to express a controversial view
What are focus groups?
A research technique that collects data through group interaction on a topic determined by a researcher.
Structured - formal/informal
What are the key features of focus groups?
> Small groups (7-9) who ‘represent’ the sample population.
> Group dynamics are used to explore the participants’ views.
> It’s run by a moderator.
> Venue and time: aim to be accessible, and minimise distractions.
> Capturing the data: audio equipment, video equipment, field notes, 2nd researcher.
What is the role of a moderator in a focus group?
> To ensure that all participants contribute fully.
> Give guidance and explanation.
> Controlling the balance between individual contributors.
> Questioning and probing.
> Observing non-verbal behaviour.
What are some ethical issues with qualitative analysis?
> Informed consent > Anonymity/confidentiality > Risk of harm ○ Potential to cause distress/embarrassment ○ Vulnerability of participants
What are some approaches to qualitative analysis?
> Thematic coding approach ○ Grounded theory ○ Framework analysis > Conversational analysis > Discourse analysis
- Managing the data - organise the data, it will often be rich and detailed.
- Making sense of the data through descriptive or explanatory accounts.
