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AP Biology > POL sections 7.1 - 7.3 > Flashcards

POL sections 7.1 - 7.3 Flashcards

1
Q

Cell division

A

A process by which a parent cell duplicates its genetic material and then divides into two similar cells

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2
Q

Two Strategies of Reproduction

A

Asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction

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3
Q

Asexual reproduction is __________; offspring are _____

A

a rapid and effective means of making new individuals common in nature; clones of the parent organism: genetically identical to each other and parent

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4
Q

Mutations

A

Alterations in DNA sequence caused by environmental factors or errors in DNA replication

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5
Q

Single-celled prokaryotes reproduce by ___________

A

binary fission

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6
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

Involves fusion of two specialized cells called gametes

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7
Q

Meiosis

A

Process of cell division resulting in daughter cells with only half the genetic material of the original cell; usually occurs in diploid cells; increases genetic diversity

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8
Q

Chromosome

A

Consists of a double-stranded molecule of DNA and associated proteins

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9
Q

Somatic cells

A

Body cells that are not specialized for reproduction; contain two sets of chromosomes and occur in homologous pairs (one from female parent and the other from male parent)

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10
Q

Homologous pair

A

Homologs bear corresponding, though not identical, genetic information

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11
Q

Gametes

A

Contain only a single set of chromosomes; n chromosomes; haploid cell

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12
Q

Zygotes

A

Contain two sets of chromosomes; 2n chromosomes; diploid cell

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13
Q

Fertilization

A

Two haploid gametes fuse to form a zygote

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14
Q

Essence of sexual reproduction

A

Random selection of half of the diploid chromosome set to make a haploid gamete, followed by fusion of two haploid gametes from separate parents to produce a diploid cell

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15
Q

Events that must occur for any cell to divide

A

Reproductive signals, DNA replication, DNA segregation, Cytokinesis

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16
Q

Reproductive signals

A

Initiate cell division and may originate from inside or outside the cell

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17
Q

DNA replication

A

Replication of the genetic material; Each of the new cells will have a full complement of genes to complete cell functions

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18
Q

DNA segregation

A

Process of distributing the replicated DNA to each of the two new cells

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19
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Process in which cytoplasm divides to form two cells, each surrounded by a cell membrane and sometimes a cell wall

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20
Q

Binary fission

A

Occurs in single-celled prokaryotes; process by which cell grows in size, replicates its DNA, and separates the DNA and cytoplasm to two cells

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21
Q

Binary fission: reproductive signals

A

Environmental conditions and nutrient concentrations

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22
Q

Binary fission: DNA replication

A

Single chromosome is circular; DNA is threaded through a “replication complex” of proteins near the center of the cell; Begins at ori and ends at ter; Two daughter DNA molecules separate and segregate to opposite ends of the cell

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23
Q

Ori

A

The site where replication of the circular chromosome starts (the origin of replication)

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24
Q

Ter

A

The site where replication of the circular chromosome ends (the terminus of replication)

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25
Q

Binary fission: DNA segregation

A

As replication proceeds, ori move toward opposite ends; DNA sequences adjacent to ori region bind proteins necessary for segregation; active process (ATP is hydrolyzed);it makes use of prokaryotic cytoskeleton to move ori regions and associated proteins (structurally actin, functionally tubin)

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26
Q

Binary fission: cytokinesis

A

Pinching in of cell caused by contraction of ring of fibers on inside surface of membrane (major component: structurally tubulin, functionally actin); As membrane pinches in, new cell wall materials are deposited, which finally separate the two new cells

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27
Q

Eukaryotic cells: reproductive signals

A

Unlike prokaryotes, signals are related to the function of the entire organism

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28
Q

Eukaryotic cells: DNA replication

A

Multiple chromosomes; long strands are threaded through replication complexes; occurs only at a specific stage of the cell cycle

29
Q

Eukaryotic cells: DNA segregation

A

More complex because of nuclear envelope and multiple chromosomes; pairs of replicated chromosomes initially attached, become highly condensed, and pairs are then pulled apart

30
Q

Cell cycle

A

The period from one cell division to the next

31
Q

Mitosis

A

The set of processes in which the chromosomes become condensed and then segregate into two new nuclei; Divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

32
Q

M phase

A

Refers to mitosis and cytokinesis

33
Q

Interphase

A

Cell nucleus is visible and typical cell functions occur (e.g. DNA replication); has three subphases called G1, S, and G2

34
Q

G1 phase

A

Cell carries out specialized functions

35
Q

S phase

A

DNA is replicated

36
Q

G2 phase

A

Cell prepares for mitosis (synthesizes components of microtubules that will segregate chromosomes

37
Q

Prophase

A

Beginning of mitosis, where condensed chromosomes, reoriented centrosomes, and the spindle appear

38
Q

Sister chromatids

A

After DNA replication, each chromosome has two DNA molecules

39
Q

Centromere

A

Region where chromatids are held together

40
Q

Kinetochores

A

Specialized protein structures that assemble on centromeres, one on each chromatid; help with chromosome movement

41
Q

Karyotype

A

Number and sizes of the condensed chromosomes; karyotype analysis used to identify organisms and detect chromosomal abnormalities

42
Q

Humans have ______ chromosomes (___ homologous pairs)

A

46; 23

43
Q

Centrosome

A

Organelle in cytoplasm near nucleus that determines orientation of spindle apparatus; Consists of a pair of centrioles

44
Q

Centriole

A

Hollow tube formed by nine triplets of microtubules

45
Q

Reoriented centrosomes

A

S: centrosome is duplicated; G2-M: Centrosomes move to opposite ends of nucleus creating “poles”

46
Q

Spindle

A

Tubulin dimers from centrosomes aggregate into microtubules that extend into the middle region of the cell; forms during prophase and prometaphase

47
Q

Three types of microtubules in spindle

A

Polar microtubules; Astral microtubules; Kinetochore microtubules

48
Q

Polar microtubules

A

Overlap in middle of cell and keep two poles apart

49
Q

Astral microtubules

A

Interact with proteins attached to cell membrane

50
Q

Kinetochore microtubules

A

Attach to kinetochores on chromosomes;

51
Q

Daughter chromosomes

A

What sister chromosomes become after separation

52
Q

Prometaphase

A

Nuclear envelope breaks down; chromosomes attach to kinetochore microtubules

53
Q

Metaphase

A

Chromosomes line up at mid-line of cell (equatorial)

54
Q

Anaphase

A

Chromatids separate

55
Q

Chromosome movement

A

Kinetochores contain molecular motor proteins like kinesin and dynein (ATP hydrolysis energy); Kinetochore microtubules shorten

56
Q

Telophase

A

Nuclear envelope forms; nucleoli appear; chromosomes decompactify; two nuclei in a cell

57
Q

Cytokinesis in animals

A

Furrowing of cell membrane; Contractile ring produces a contraction, pinching the cell into two; microfilaments assemble from actin monomers present in interphase cytoskeleton controlled by calcium ions released from storage sites in center of cell

58
Q

Cytokinesis in plants

A

Vesicles from Golgi apparatus appear along plane of cell division; fuse to form new cell membrane and cell plate (beginning of new cell wall)

59
Q

Contractile ring

A

Composed of microfilaments of actin and myosin, which form a ring on the cytoplasmic surface of the cell membrane; Proteins interact to produce a contraction

60
Q

Growth factors

A

Mammals produce a variety of substances that stimulate cell division and differentiation

61
Q

G1-S Transition; R point; restriction point

A

Cell will proceed with the rest of the cell cycle and divide

62
Q

Protein kinases

A

Class of enzymes that are common in cell signaling

63
Q

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

A

Catalyze the phosphorylation of target proteins that regulate the cell cycle; activated by binding to protein cyclin

Cell cycle regulator + ATP —->(CDK) Cell cycle regulator-P + ADP

64
Q

Cell cycle checkpoints

A

Points of transition between different phases of the cell cycle, which are regulated by cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk’s)

65
Q

G1, G2 checkpoints

A

Triggered by DNA damage

66
Q

S checkpoint

A

Triggered by incomplete replication or DNA damage

67
Q

M checkpoint

A

Triggered by a chromosome that fails to attach to the spindle

68
Q

After the CDK acts, the cyclin is broken down by a _______

A

protease

69
Q

Chain reaction for cell cycle

A

Growth factor → cyclin synthesis → CDK activation → cell cycle events

AP Biology (3 decks)

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