3.1 - Causes of Russian Revolution Flashcards
(76 cards)
1
Q
19th Century Russia – Demography
A
- 8000km from East to West; 3200km from North to South
- Ethnically diverse – 170 ethnicities
o Russians = only 44% of population
o Different cultures, languages and movements for political independent - Population rapidly expanding-40 million in 1815 1995 million in 1890 165 million in 1914
- Increase of people living in towns
2
Q
19th Century Russia – Social Structure
A
- Nobility – 1% of population but owned 25% of land
- Middle class – small (approx 0.5% in 1897) but growing
- Urban workers – new class and small (about 7%) with very poor working and living conditions
- Peasants approx 80% of population
o Given some land after emancipation in 1861 but very restricted by the mur they lived in we got poor illiterate and widespread disease - Kulaks – rich peasants who hired labour, rented and bought land
3
Q
19th Century Russia – Political System
A
- Tsar was autocratic and had supreme power
- All other bodies of government were administrative or advisory
o Imperial Council – provided expert opinion
o Committee of Ministers – advisory role, ran departments and appointed by Tsar
o Russia = only European country without democratic/representative government by 20th century
4
Q
19th Century Russia – Russian Politics
A
- Tsar Alexander II
o Reformer
o Nicknamed ‘Tsar Liberator’
o Created representation full landlords through zemstvo’s in brackets local government
o Emancipated the peasants
o However, banned trade unions and kept a massive police force - Tsar Alexander III
o Disempowered the zemstvo
o Policy of Russification – forced minorities to learn Russian, tried to convert populations to Russian Orthodox
5
Q
19th Century Russia – Pillars of Control
A
- Bureaucracy:
o 14 levels
o Put policies into practice - Police:
o Okhrana – Tsar’s secret police
o Maintained law and order, but only 1 policeman per 3850 peasants, so Tsar relied on Cossacks - Orthodox Church:
o Legitimised Tsar’s power
o Used to reinforce conservative values and stifle receptiveness to revolutionary ideas and movements - Army:
o Conscription used as a punishment
o Severe discipline and grim conditions
o 1.5 million men = 45% of government spending
o High ranks reserved for aristocracy
6
Q
19th Century Russia – Agricultural Situation
A
- Post peasant emancipation, landlords would not pay labourers and peasants could not afford to own land ¼ of previously cultivated land fell into disuse
- Peasants owned small land holdings (less than 10 acres)
- Led to inefficient farms (half of other nations per acre)
- Growing population pressure on food resources
7
Q
19th Century Russia – Industrial Situation
A
- Industrialisation pursued after 1870s
- Russia behind on all industrial measures:
o Coal production less than 5% of that of Britain
o –> 25% of coal imported
o Lack of effective banking system
o Less railway track
8
Q
Nicholas II
A
- Came to power in 1894
- Committed to preservation of autocracy
o Believed democracy would collapse Russian empire - Heavily influenced by Russification – a severely enforced policy of restricting the influence of non-Russian national minorities, by emphasising superiority of Russian culture
o Impact of Russification – greater opposition, disunity in Russia and emergence of revolutionary groups - Coronation –> crowd crush and >1300 killed but Tsar attended party with French later that night –> diminished reputation
9
Q
Liberal Ideas
A
- Includes nobles, middle class and students
- Two main political parties: Octobrists and Kadets
- Wanted reforms to system rather than revolution
o Agreed on establishing a constitution and parliament - However, Tsar’s response against Liberal groups increased anger
o Tsar weakened Zemstvo through censorship, arresting leaders and reducing budgets
o Removed freedoms from universities, arrested leaders and slaughter of the students where 13 killed, hundreds injured and 1500 arrested - Significance:
o Calls for constitutional monarchy and universal suffrage became important
o Discontent led to February Revolution
10
Q
Liberal Group: Octobrists
A
- Moderate Liberals loyal to Tsar, often drawn from commercial, industrial and landowning interests
- Believed in maintaining Russian Empire but also desired constitutional monarchy
- Frequently voiced criticism of Tsar and eventually withdrew support in 1917
11
Q
Liberal Group: Kadets
A
- Largest Liberal group
- Included middle classes
- Demands:
o All Russian Constituent Assembly – with power to make and amend Constitution
o Full equality
o Abolition of censorship
o Abolition of redemption payments – payments made by serfs to government after emancipation
o Trade unions and right to strike
o Universal education
12
Q
Marxism
A
- Believe that economic forces and the class struggle shape society
- Believes that the central conflict exists between the proletariat and bourgeoisie
o Believes that the exploitation of the proletariat will create revolutionary consciousness and lead to workers overthrowing the bourgeoisie - Aims:
o Establish communist society that is classless and with property and wealth shared - Marxism appealed to young intellectuals and those that believed reform was not possible
o Marxism offered a way forward for Russia that seemed rational and scientific
13
Q
Marxism-Leninism
A
- Lenin wanted to accelerate the process of the revolution by making the proletariat aware of their exploitation
- Lenin also clarified how the socialist transition would work and what the communist utopia would in fact look like
- Elements of Leninist Theory:
o Vanguard Party – to become a guiding force to overthrow the bourgeoisie by creating a democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and then transferring power
o Dictatorship of the Proletariat – with elected soviets and representatives of factory workers and trade unions
o Nationalised industry and a foreign trade monopoly
o National self determination
o Socialist culture – to educate workers and change their perception of society
14
Q
Socialist Group: Mensheviks
A
- Formed after the split of the Social Democratic Party in 1903
- Advocated for a mass organisation with membership open to all and decisions made by internal votes
- Believed Russia was not ready for a socialist revolution as the bourgeoisie stage had to occur first
o Committed to a strategy of alliance with other groups and championed improvements to working conditions and wages (economism)
15
Q
Socialist Group: Bolsheviks
A
- Formed after the split of the Social Democratic Party in 1903
- Advocated for a tight-knit exclusive organisation of professional revolutionaries
- Believed the bourgeoisie and proletarian stage of revolution can occur together (telescoped)
- Against cooperation with other parties
- Argued that imperialism was the highest stage of capitalism so Russia was ripe for revolution
- Dismissed economism
16
Q
Socialist Group: Socialist Revolutionaries
A
- Populist movement that wanted to end capitalism
- However, did not want to implement communism either
- Advocated for ‘revolutionary socialism’ and pledged to redistribute land
- Appealed to workers and valued peasants as a key aspect of their support base
- Internally split between anarchists and communists –> incoherent party
17
Q
Social Democrats
A
- Founded in 1898
- Banned in Russia and 2 main members in exile –> limited influence
- Lenin joined in 1900
o Role as editor of party newspaper allowed him to voice his opinions - 2nd Party Congress (1903) – Lenin made an issue over membership of party
o Plekhanov & Martov – broad based party
o Lenin – tight knit, exclusive party of ‘professional revolutionaries’
o Led to a series of votes occurring but result was unclear –> party splits in two
18
Q
Causes of 1905 Revolution:
Discontent Amongst Peasantry
A
- Caused by famine, lack of work, rising rents and increases to grain tax
- Peasant Revolt (1902-3) – led to destruction of properties and targeted nobility
- Years of the Red Cockerel (1903-4) – involved seizure of land by peasants → anger amongst landlords and pressure on Tsar to act
→ shortages of grain exacerbated as peasants not paying tax on land - Government responds by conducting and investigation into causes of anger, which concludes that no rural areas were prosperous and all were in a state of decline
- However, the government did not implement reforms
19
Q
Causes of 1905 Revolution:
Discontent Amongst Workers
A
- Caused by poor working conditions:
o Working for more than 11 hours a day
o Excessive fines for being late or absent
o Lowest paid workers in Europe
o Trade unions and strikes illegal - Exacerbated by recession in early 1900s
- Belief that reforms were insufficient
- Increased number of strikes (522 met with violence by 1902)
20
Q
Causes of 1905 Revolution:
Discontent Amongst Educated Classes
A
- Mostly radical students → anti government sentiment
- Government response of expulsion, exile, forced military service and reforms to the education system to increase censorship → exacerbated anger
- National Zemstvo Congress (Nov 1904) = first national assembly in Russian history and made calls for a constitution
- Moscow City Duma (Nov 1904) = demanded establishment of national legislature, and freedom of religion and press
- Nicholas response – manifesto promising broadened powers for Zemstvo, insurance for industrial workers and abolition of censorship
o However, refused to implement representative national legislature
21
Q
Causes of 1905 Revolution:
Russo-Japanese War
A
- Russia looked to expand into Manchuria and Korea
o Wanted to compensate for decline in Europe
o Wanted to gain an ice free port
o Wanted to distract population from domestic problems
o However, Japan also had interest in these regions - Russia gained 25 year lease on Liaodong Peninsula, Manchuria – including access to Port Arthur, a warm water port with access to Pacific
- Russia also continued to build up military strength in Manchuria
- Russia did not realise the advancements to Japanese military so believed a war against them would be an easy victory
- Japan tries to reduce tensions by proposing well defined spheres of influence, with Russia to hold Manchuria and Japan to hold Korea
o However, Russia was not interested in a diplomatic solution
o Instead, Russia wanted a short, decisive war to create national pride and unity - Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) ensured Britain would not support Russia on case of war → increase Japanese confidence
- Beginning of war – Japan launch surprise attack on Port Arthur in 1904
o Russia initially advantaged with x3 population and x5 military of Japan
o However, Russia was severely caught off guard with a lack of artillery and resources in Manchuria to respond
o Failure of Balkan fleet – 10 months late and fired on Britain causing blockade of Suez Canal - Result: decisive Japanese victory
- Russia lost due to:
o Commanders not understanding enemy or terrain
o Long distances for supplies to travel
o Poor strategy - Impacts:
o Treaty of Portsmouth (Aug 1905) → Russia remove military from Manchuria and lost its lease of Liaodong Peninsula
o Humiliating defeat → anger, revolutionary sentiment and criticism of government → strikes (120k on strike in Jan 1905), peasant revolts, student demonstrations and attacks by revolutionary terrorists
o Growing support for liberal and revolutionary movements
o Shortages, rising prices (eg 35% increase in price of bread from 1904-5) and falling wages of 25%
o Lack of domestic military capability to respond to domestic threats
o Radicalisation of soldiers
22
Q
Father Gapon’s Petition
A
- Petition designed to appeal directly to Tsar and highlight workers’ grievances, including:
o Freedom of speech, press, association and religion
o Universal education
o Equality of the law
o Separation of church and state
o Abolition of indirect taxes
o Abolition of redemption payments
o Eight hour working day and regulation of overtime work
o Freedom of labour
o Wage regulation
23
Q
Bloody Sunday (9th Jan 1905)
A
- 150k protesters assembled peacefully and marched to Winter Palace
- Soldiers began firing on protesters when they did not obey demand to disperse
- Approx 200 killed and 800 wounded; however, reports at the time stated 4600 killed –> influence opinion
- Tsar not present at winter palace at the time so did not order troops to fire; however, as he had absolute authority, he was ultimately seen as responsible
24
Q
Impacts of Bloody Sunday
A
- Faith of working class in Tsar shattered
o Lost reputation as ‘little father’ - Interior Minister, Mirskii, was dismissed Jan 18th
- Workers’ response:
o Wave of fury spread across Russia
o 400k strikers in St Petersburg alone (end of Jan 1905)
–> Industrial action was taking place in every major town and city –> ‘festival of mobilisation’
o Revolutionaries increase influence
o Founding of St Petersburg Soviet (13th Oct 1905) = platform for workers to advocate and challenged authority of Tsar - Peasants’ response:
o Resistance initially mild – such as not paying taxes
o However, continued to grow, including seizure of crops and livestock, and burning of manor houses
–> Tsar ordered armed response on 2700 occasions
–> However, lack of troops due to Russo-Japanese War combined with unwillingness of peasants to fire on their own people and a lack of power of local government –> unable to effectively respond
o Peasant Union formed (Oct 1905) and created political demands - refused to pay taxes or provide troops to army until demands are met - Military response:
o Poor conditions and war weariness from Russo Japanese War –> mutinies
o For example, the Potemkin mutiny occurred after sailors were served rotten meat, led to 7/18 officers being killed
o Significant challenge to Tsar’s control and prevented them from quelling revolution - Liberals’ response:
o Formation of Union of Unions to combine liberals with industrial workers
o Maintained commitment to universal suffrage and representative government - Revolutionaries’ response:
o Involvement was generally limited – workers and peasants often apathetic and hostile to revolutionaries
o Terror wing called for attacks against landlords
25
October Manifesto - Background
* Nicholas facing largest opposition ever
* Two options:
o Authoritarian response; however, government lacked resources to enforce it and did not want a repeat of Bloody Sunday
o Political reforms; however, Nicholas ideologically opposed to reform as it would break his coronation oath
* Witte believed reform that was necessary to bring peace and order
* Nicholas reluctant to make reforms – “terrible decision”
26
October Manifesto - Reforms
* Civil freedoms – speech, assembly, association and conscience
* Elections to State Duma with ‘universal’ suffrage
* Nicholas to lose autocratic lawmaking powers as all laws needed to be approved by Duma
27
October Manifesto - Impacts
* Manifesto did not reference a constitution
* However, reforms were broadly accepted
* Short term: opposition divided, revolutionary movements undermined and army kept on side
* Offered some hope to peasants, especially land redistribution
* Tax reforms --> redemption payments halved and eventually cancelled --> less land seizures and rural unrest
* Workers were largely satisfied by reforms and remained fearful of economic hardship if they lost their jobs
* Revolutionaries and the Soviets were not satisfied by reforms as they viewed it as a threat against their campaign
o Tsar quickly crushed remnants of workers’ movements in a wave of repression
28
Split of Liberal Groups
* Liberals split into:
o Octobrists – who accepted reforms made by October Manifesto
o Kadets – who supported reforms but hoped for further reforms, especially the development of a constitution
* Both groups were committed to preparing for upcoming Duma elections
29
Significance of 1905 Revolution
* Tsarist government avoided a revolution
* Nicholas forced to reform through October Manifesto
o Undermined Tsar’s autocratic power
* Revolutionary leaders disappointed
* Liberal movements increased political influence and move away from extreme change
* Highlighted disorganisation and disunity
* Important lessons learned in propaganda and agitation learned
* New institutions developed – eg Duma and Soviets
* Described as a ‘dress rehearsal’ for 1917 by Lenin
* Crisis of modernisation not addressed
* Awakened people’s expectations for change
30
Limitations of Duma
* Electoral system not fully representative:
o Only landowners of >200 hectares could vote directly
o Only men over 25 could vote
o Women and soldiers unable to vote
o Peasants only had an indirect vote
o Construction workers and casual labourers could not vote
* State Council – appointed 50% by Tsar
o Nicholas made the Council the upper house of parliament
o This restricted role of Duma as members would agree with Tsar on most issues
* Nicholas believed reforms were illegitimate and unnecessary
31
Fundamental Laws
* Proclaimed that Tsar had supreme power
o All laws required his approval
o Tsar appointed ministers, and they were only accountable to him
o Tsar retained complete control over foreign affairs, military affairs and declaration of states of emergency
32
First Duma
* Seat distribution:
o Kadets = 37%
o Trudoviks = 20%
o Peasants not affiliated with any party = 38%
* Kadets hoped for land reform, changes to military funding, and establishment of Constitution
* Only 2 laws passed – ban on capital punishment and famine relief
* Duma dissolved after only 73 days --> angered Kadets
33
Second Duma
* Involvement of social democrats and socialist revolutionaries --> more radical
* Duma heavily critical of proposed land reform and military administration
* Accusations that SDs were plotting to overthrow Tsar --> dissolution of Duma
* 20 bills approved and 3 bills enforced, out of 287 submitted
34
Third Duma
* Opened because:
o Reforms to electoral system made voting more restricted
o Russia was trying to increase foreign influence, so needed to demonstrate democratic values
* Octobrists became largest party
* Composed of “responsible and statesmanlike people”
* 2571 bills passed, including social reforms, workers compensation, universal education and budget
* Lasted full 5 years
35
Stolypin
* Committed monarchist but significant reformer
* Became PM in August 1906
* Believed that suppression of revolutionary movements needed to occur before reform → Martial law declared August 1906
o Loss of civil freedoms
o 2193 executed for ‘terrorist’ or revolutionary activities between 1906-08
o Increased surveillance of universities
o Thus, this contradicted October Manifesto pledges
36
Stolypin's Reforms
* Aimed to create class of self sufficient and prosperous peasants, Kulaks → more likely to obey government and less likely to join revolutionary movements
o Especially important given size of peasant class and high revolutionary potential
* Needed to address rural crisis of riots and lack of food to modernise Russia and support military
* Agrarian Reform Act issued by executive order November 1906
* Reforms included:
o Abolition of redemption payments
o Royal and Government land being made available for purchase → 3m accepted offer to relocate to Siberia, but many returned
o Peasants permitted to leave mir (village commune) → 2m farmed independently (1913) = 15% of pop; however, 50% still remained in mir
o Peasants permitted to combine land
o Insurance against sickness, old age and injury
o Proportional taxation
o Compulsory primary education → number of primary schools doubled (1906-13)
o Night and underground labour banned for children and women
o Working day shortened to 8 hours (but this was not always adhered to)
* Effectiveness limited:
o Focus on most productive peasants → only 10% of population benefitted
o Only had 5 years to reform
o Peasants were resistant to changes
37
Lena Goldfields Massacre
* 12th April 1912
* Workers at Lena Goldfields complained over poor conditions, including:
o 16 hour days
o Cost cutting measures → lower wages
o Served rotten horse meat
* Workers demanded higher pay, 8 hour days, end of fines and a cap to food prices, but these were rejected
* 6000 miners went on strike, government intervened → 500 shot and 250 killed
o This was likened to Bloody Sunday
* Government response → 3m workers staged 9000 strikes between 1912-14
o 2400 of these strikes had political demands (1914), increase from just 24 (1911)
o St Petersburg General Strike (Jul 1914)
38
Fourth Duma
* November 1912 – August 1914
* Plagued by growing tension and more protests as promises weren’t delivered upon
* Rise in revolutionary extremism → wave of assassinations of government officials
* Death of Stolypin → left significant vacancy that Tsar couldn’t replace
* Relationship between Duma and Tsar deteriorated, to the point where Octobrists were no longer satisfied with Tsar → less effective
39
Impact of Declaration of War
* Outpouring of Russian nationalism and expression of loyalty of Tsar, demonstrated by:
o Reduction in number of strikes from 3493 (Jan-Jul 1914) to 41 (Aug-Dec 1914)
o Revolutionaries now viewed by Russians as traitors
o Socialists began to support war effort
o 95% of conscripts reported for duty
o Fourth Duma suspended itself, pledging support to Tsar
* However, Nicholas mistakenly believed that this support continued throughout the war
* Russian advantages going into war:
o Largest grain exporter
o Large population
40
Preparations for War
* Great Military Program – 5 year program initiated in 1912, but had made little progress by 1914 due to inept administration
* Russia was significantly under resourced in lead up to war:
o Only 4.6m rifles for 6.5m troops → needed to produce 100k/month, but only produced 42k/month
o Artillery rationed to 3 rounds/day
o Shortage of 1b cartridges
o Equipment not suitable for Russian winter conditions or trench warfare
* Leadership of military = inexperienced as based on loyalty to Tsar
41
Military Campaigns During WWI
* Success – Battle of Lemberg
o Russia defeated Austrian armed forces
o Austria lost 1/3 of their troops (=400k) while Russia only lost 225k
* Failure – Battle of Tannenberg
o Russia suffered 70k casualties, lost 100k troops and 350 pieces of heavy artillery in just 5 days
o Germans only suffered 15k casualties
* Failure – Battle of Masurian Lakes
o Russia lost 100k troops (60k killed, 40k captured) in 4 days
o Germany lost 10k
* 1915 – 1m Russian troops killed → Great Retreat (Jul – Sep 1915)
* Mid 1915 – 4m Russian soldiers dead, wounded or captured
o Significantly higher than other nations
o Only 40 of 330 officers in one division still remaining
* Russian soldiers were poorly trained, with just 6 weeks of training and most of it without access to weapons
* ¾ of new soldiers did not have a weapon
42
Impact of War Failures
* Loss of Russian territory – 23m Russians living under German occupation → national humiliation and criticism of Tsarist government
* Loss of morale – growing number of desertions, growth in fear/anger, and revolutionary ideals becoming more appealing
43
Economic Impact of War
* Shortages of goods due to prioritisation of war effort → declining living standards → increase in revolutionary tension
* Railways = unable to cope with demand due to poor administration and small network scale → difficulty distributing food
o 1916 – Petrograd and Moscow only receiving 1/3 of food and fuel supply
o Calorie intake for average unskilled worker decreased 25%
o Infant mortality doubled
o 1/3 of bakeries and 2/3 of butchers closed in Petrograd
* Inflation – increased significantly due to need to cover cost of war effort → printing of more money
o Real wages decreased 65%
o 1917 Rouble could only buy 30% of what it could in 1913
* Ban on production and sale of vodka → tax revenue decreased 28% → exacerbated budgetary pressures
* Agriculture
o Bulk of army comprised of peasants → shortages of labour in agriculture → decreased agricultural output
o Requisitioning of horses → decreased agricultural output
o Government set unreasonably high quotas → peasants began to sow less grain and increased support of socialist revolutionaries in rural areas
* Wealth disparity – inflation → wealth of elite increased dramatically → social unrest
44
Political Impact of War War One
* Union of Zemstvos and Union of Towns
o Led by Lvov (Kadet)
o Offered to assist government with transport of supplies and care for wounded
o However, Tsar rejected offer
* War Industries Commission:
o Comprised of progressive Moscow based industrialists
o Chaired by Guchov (Octobrist)
o Angered as most war contracts provided to Petrograd businesses
o Appealed to government to create a more competitive/efficient/productive economy
o Tsar rejected offer
* Progressive Bloc
o Alliance of Kadets and Octobrists = 236/422 of Duma deputies → strong opposition toward Tsar
o Aimed to protect Tsar by calling for administrative reforms, including dismissal of incompetent minsters and creation of ‘government of public confidence’ → more effective government
o Nicholas vehemently rejected proposal and sacked ministers who supported it → deterioration of government and Duma relations
* Ultimately, Tsar missed critical opportunities to improve performance → viewed Tsar as completely unwilling to reform and being out of touch → further decline in support and support for alternatives
45
Nicholas as Commander in Chief
* Described as the most disastrous political decision he ever made
* Nicholas lacked charisma, had no military experience and was not popular
* Left running of country to Tsarina → increased influence of Rasputin
46
Ministerial Leapfrog
* 1915-17
* Dismissal of government ministers became increasingly common
* Changes included:
o 4 different PMs, Ministers of Education and Ministers of Justice
o 3 different Ministers of Transport, Ministers of Foreign Affairs and War Ministers
* Most of the new candidates were incompetent, did not understand their role and exercised limited influence – for example, Proptopopov (Interior Minister Sep. 1916) had candid conversations with statues and dressed as a policeman despite never being one
* Stürmer (Interior Minister Jan 1916) had a passion for all things German → decreased credibility of government
* Rasputin often accepted bribes from individuals to be granted ministerial positions
47
Reasons for Frustration at Tsarina
* German heritage → viewed as a traitor and alien
* Accepted Rasputin’s advice unconditionally → poor administrative decisions
* Failed to develop positive public relations
48
How Rasputin Discredited Tsarist Regime
* Rumour of intimate relations → became widely believed by public → undermined confidence, credibility and legitimacy, thus affecting Tsar’s reputation
* Rasputin pushed away traditional supporters of Tsar from his inner circle
* Accepting of bribes → reduced credibility
49
Causes of February Revolution
* 3 waves of strikes between 1915-17
o First caused by dismissal of Duma and defeat in Galicia
o Second caused by economic strikes at Putilov Steelworks
o Third caused by 12th anniversary of Bloody Sunday, and continued food shortages
o Nicholas does not respond
* 1917 – Liberals began to suggest replacing Tsar
* Bolsheviks had planned mass demonstrations for April 1917 → Bolsheviks played no part in February Revolution
* 1916/17 winter was one of the coldest ever → food and fuel supplies critically low, and private rail travel banned
50
Key Events of February Revolution
* 18 February – Putilov Steelworks workers go on strike over pay and conditions → 40k workers protesting
* 23 February – women march from factories to commemorate International Women’s Day → 90k on street
* 24 February – protestors demand end to war and autocratic rule; clashes with police
* 25 February – office workers and teachers join strikes; Cossacks ordered to suppress movement but do not fire as they share solidarity with protesters
* 26 February – mutinies occur; Nicholas dismisses Duma
* 27 February – 400k protesters, general strike paralyses Petrograd; Provisional Committee formed by Kerensky, Rodzianko and Miliukov
* 28 February – widespread surrender of police and officials; Nicholas unable to reach Petrograd due to closure of railway
* 1 March – Provisional Government formed; agreement with Petrograd Soviet to create dual authority
* 2 March – Nicholas abdicates
* 3 March – Provisional Government formally recognised by USA and as Nicholas’ heir, Mikhail, refuses to take the throne due to security concerns
51
Beginning of Provisional Government
* Lvov appointed Prime Minister because:
o He had experience leading the union of towns
o He had no formal affiliation with any political party
* Appointments made by Miliukov and Lvov
* Provisional government limited because:
o Assumed power in a power vacuum
o Was not elected and had no popular mandate
o Believed they would only govern until a Constituent Assembly was formed → left many reforms for them to complete in the future
* Provisional Government made a series of reforms:
o Recognition of trade unions
o 8 hour working day for industrial workers
o Capital punishment and Okhrana abolished
o Freedom of speech, assembly and press established
o However, PG did not make any reforms to industry, agriculture, the war effort or inflation → did not meet expectations of the public
52
Dual Authority
* Refers to sharing of power between Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet
* Soviet Order #1 – Petrograd garrison only obligated to follow the directives of the PG when they do not conflict with the orders of the Soviet
o This was a direct challenge to power of PG
o Led to a split in power between military officers and soldiers
53
Lenin's Return to Russia
* First leading Bolsheviks to return were Stalin and Kamenev → provided cautious support to PG → angered Lenin
* Lenin was stuck in Zurich and unable to cross German territory
* Germans formulated plan to secretly escort Lenin and 31 other Bolsheviks back to Russia → aim to cause political instability
54
April Theses
* 4th April 1917
* Expected that Lenin would speak about need to unite Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
* However, he instead spoke about:
o Denunciation of Provisional government due to capitalist nature and ongoing support for ‘imperialistic’ WWI → urge Bolsheviks to not support it and instead criticise it
o Need for a second revolution for the workers to take control, as part of the Soviet
o Nationalisation of all land
o Abolition of police, army and bureaucracy
o Increased propaganda and introduction of clear slogans
* Became a radical manifesto that appealed to workers and soldiers
* By end of April, the theses had broad support in the Bolshevik party
* Led to Bolsheviks becoming more recognisable
55
Provisional Government's War Aims
* 14th March – Petrograd Soviet called for end to war but without concessions → forced PG to declare its aims
* Disagreement existed in PG:
o Lvov and Kerensky believed that peace needed to be made
o Guchkov and Miliukov believed that the war should continue until Russia was victorious
* Final declaration aligned with Soviet’s position
56
Miliukov's Note
* However, Miliukov continued to oppose this position so produced a note to accompany the declaration outlining the need for a decisive victory
* This lead to widespread fury amongst workers and soldiers → protests of 25k with calls to end war and for Guchkov and Miliukov to resign
* Miliukov’s note played into Lenin’s argument
57
April Crisis
* Protests about Miliukov’s note → gave validity to Lenin’s ideas
* Lvov forced to ask for support by Soviet → 3 day ban on demonstrations by Soviet
* Outcome – PG survived but demonstrated its’ fundamental lack of power and lost support from the public
58
First Coalition Government
* Guchkov and Miliukov reluctantly resign in late April/early May
* Lvov aimed to restore support and legitimacy to PG → urged Soviet leaders to join
* 5th May – new coalition formed, including 6 socialists, who hoped for greater influence and populist policies
* Divide formed between Liberals and Socialists → difficulty creating change → Mensheviks and SRs involved in PG had reputations tarnished as they were blamed for lack of action
* Meanwhile, Bolsheviks did not participate in PG so did not lose their reputation = played into Lenin’s argument
59
June Offensive
* 1st Coalition began preparing for a renewed military offensive
* Kerensky was concerned about low morale and effects of a German victory on revolution, and pressure from allies → announce a new offence
* Kerensky’s speeches labelled him the ‘Supreme Persuader in Chief’ and created an enthusiastic response from soldiers
* Brusilov, known for preparedness and aggression, made Commander in Chief on 23rd May
* Offensive initially a success with 30km gained
* However, Russia suffered 40k losses, including the most elite and loyal troops → offensive stalled by July 2
* 6th July – counter attack from Germany → 400k soldiers retreat, spike in desertions and Germans had advanced 230km
* Brusilov blamed defeat on Bolshevik influence
* Consequences:
o Morale completely eroded
o Soviet War aim discredited
o Dual Authority put under great strain
o Confidence in Government plummeted → increased support for Bolsheviks
60
July Days
* First Machine Gun regiment advised of deployment to front line → Petrograd Soviet meeting on 2nd July → passing of anti government resolutions and calls for demonstration
* 3rd July – armed workers and soldiers march toward city → street fighting between protesters and right wing groups → 400 deaths
* 4th July – hundreds of thousands protest, and 2500 sailors from Kronstadt are praised by Lenin but are urged to maintain restraint
* 50k gather at Tauride palace but Lenin does not act – concerned about whether he would have Soviet support
* Soviet had no desire to take power, despite being urged by workers and soldiers → frustration at Soviet
* Chernov (Min. for Agriculture) sent to explain to crowd how situation was being managed → kidnapped by protesters and told to ‘take power’
* However, by the end of 4th July the protests had fizzled out due to lack of leadership
* Pereverzev (Min. for Justice) blamed situation on Bolsheviks, suggested Bolsheviks were supported by Germans and raided offices of Pravda → soldiers return to Tauride Palace to protect PG and Soviet
* Kernsky ordered seizure of Bolshevik HQ, arrest of Bolshevik leaders → 800 arrested, Lenin flees to Finland, and party members attacked and removed from factories by workers
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Second Coalition Government
* 8th July – PM Lvov resigns as he is disillusioned with internal fighting and is concerned about social tensions → Kerensky becomes new PM
* Kerensky immediately tries to form new government → enormous pressure on him:
o Left wing want an end to the war and resolution to economic issues
o Right wind want a continuation to the war until victory
* 18th July – Kerensky believed strong leadership would lead to success → Kornilov appointed Commander in Chief
o Believer in strong discipline
o Hated the Soviet and Bolsheviks
o Did not have an understanding of the political system in Russia
* 25th July – Second Coalition Government takes office
o All ministers asked to act as individuals, not representatives of parties, to increase unity and stability; however, this did not work
* Kornilov provided a list of demands:
o Restoration of death penalty to reduce desertions and mutinies
o Ban soldier committees and political meetings on the front
o Factories working for defence should be subject to military discipline and have a set of quotas established
o Ban on strikes with strikers to receive death penalty
* Kornilov’s demands → concerned Kerensky about his appointment
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Moscow State Conference
* Kerensky convened a meeting of 2500 delegates from diverse background to try to create unity and support for new government
o Did not include any representatives from Bolsheviks
* Conference revealed deep divisions in Russian politics
* Kornilov arrives on day 2 and emphasised need for discipline and order
* Conference ultimately made no progress whatsoever
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Kornilov Affair
* 19th August – Kornilov orders his Cossack units to move closer to Petrograd
o Argues this was to protect the Northern Front
o However, this was really to disperse the Soviet
* Former Minister for the Church, Lvov, acted as a mediator between Kerensky and Kornilov
o Lvov interfered with messages
o Told Kerensky that Kornilov was demanding dictatorial powers and Kerensky’s resignation
o Told Kornilov that Kerensky was encouraging him to establish a military dictatorship
o Neither of these messages were true → worsened situation
* Kerensky impersonates Lvov in a telegram asking him to confirm his real intentions
* 27th August – Kerensky telegrams Kornilov advising him he is dismissed → Kornilov believing he has been betrayed or Kerensky was held hostage by the Soviet → Kornilov dismissed order and commands his troops to advance on Petrograd to ‘save Russia’
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Significance of Kornilov Affair
* PG forced to plead for support from Soviet – Soviet demands for release of Bolsheviks
* Bolsheviks organise workers’ militias, known as Red Guards
* 30th August – Kornilov and closest officers arrested
* Increased problems for Kerensky:
o Divisions between soldiers and officers grew
o Military discipline fell
o Unemployment growing → crime increased
o Food supply crisis – caused by bad harvest and ongoing land seizures
o Popularity fell
* Reputation of Mensheviks and SRs ruined due to involvement in Second Coalition
* Bolshevik popularity grew dramatically as they were able to portray themselves as protectors of the revolution
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Meeting of Bolsheviks (10 October)
* Decision made that Bolsheviks should launch an armed insurrection
* Trotsky believes that they should wait until Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, and Lenin agrees
* Date of insurrection not set
* Kamenev and Zinoviev continue to disagree with plan → publicly stating objections → Lenin becomes furious
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Military Revolutionary Committee
* Formed by Bolsheviks on 16th October
* Took control of Petrograd garrison - aimed to protect Soviet from an armed coup/counterrevolutionaries and to protect Petrograd from German offensive
* Trotsky was a key member and exerted large influence
* Provisional Government lost control of Petrograd as had no military power
* Allows Bolsheviks to launch an insurrection
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Events Prior to
October Revolution
* 23rd October:
o Kerensky orders destruction of bridges linking the city to working class suburbs
o Kerensky orders the shutdown of 2 Bolshevik newspapers
* 24th October:
o Red Guards retake control of checkpoints and printing presses
o Milrevkom has taken control of strategic buildings
o Soldiers loyal to Provisional Government surrender
* 25th October:
o Bolsheviks have control over public services – post, electricity, banks, railways and telegraphs
o Lenin comes out of hiding
o Bolsheviks initiate plans to attack winter palace
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Assault on Winter Palace (25 October)
* Kronstadt sailors arrive 3 hours late → force Bolsheviks to delay assault
* Plan to use cannons fails as it is learned the planned cannon is only a historical artefact
* Aurora late – arrives at 9:40pm
* Provisional Government soldiers waiting for assault leave positions to have dinner → weakest soldiers in charge (140 volunteers, 40 disabled soldiers, trainees and bicycle officers)
* 40k Bolsheviks able to enter through unarmed doors
* Takes 4.5 hours to find remaining PG ministers – Kerensky escaped before this time
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Congress of Soviets (25 October)
* Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets begins on 25th October at 10:40pm, despite Bolshevik attempts to delay
* Martov (Menshevik) calls for a socialist coalition government
o Lenin rejects this as it would mean Bolsheviks would have limited influence
* Complete rejection of this call → Mensheviks and SRs stage a walkout → no opposition to Bolsheviks
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Conditions Prior to July Days
* Deteriorating economic conditions and discontent with PG → increased number of strikes and revolutionary ideas prevalent
* Returning soldiers had gained more radical views → increased number of land seizures
* Greater exposure to revolutionary ideals through rural Soviets
* Government urged peasants to wait for Constituent Assembly
* PG also losing power to nationalist groups hoping for greater autonomy
o Concessions to Rada (Ukraine) → all Kadets resign from coalition on July 2nd
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Consequences of July Days
* Bolsheviks did not have power to drive through with a revolutionary movement
* Government still maintained military support
* Demonstrated that a popular movement with strong leadership could lead to collapse of Government
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Impact of Social Democrats Split
* Allowed Lenin to have tight control over his own party and implement his own ideas --> increased power and influence
* Allowed Lenin to quickly assert his will over the party when he returns to Russia
* No need to compromise --> greater stability and integrity
* Lenin able to spread more radical views
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Witte's Economic Reforms:
Policies
* Witte sought to drive economy through industrialisation
o Believed Russia needed state capitalism to direct and control economy
Policies – described as the Great Spurt:
o Increased investment by negotiating loans from abroad – increased from 2.5m Roubles (1893) to 13m (1898) to 2.2b (1913)
o Increased taxes and interest rates
o Limited imports by increasing tariffs
o Investment into railways – amount of track tripled
o Encouragement of technical education – 8 technical schools (1894) to >100 (1904); literacy rate increased from 20% (1890) to 38% (1914)
Investment into heavy industry from 60m Roubles (1890) to 430m (1900)
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Witte's Economic Reforms:
Impacts
Impacts:
o GDP growth of 97% between 1898 to 1913 (compared to 40% in Britain, 84% in Germany)
o Coal production from 3m tons (1880) to 34m tons (1916)
o Oil production from 0.5m tons (1880) to 10m tons (1916)
o Grain production from 34m tons (1880) to 64m tons (1916)
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Witte's Economic Reforms:
Limitations
Problems with reforms:
o 30% of investment from abroad Russia dependent on foreign debt
o Taxes for peasants increased 5% to 15%
o No focus on developing agriculture
o Rapid increases in urban populations overcrowding and lack of resources
o Poor working conditions – strikes and unions banned; no health or safety regulations; 12-16hr working days increased number of strikes (19 in 1893 to 522 in 1902)
o 1900 recession increased unemployment
o Inflation at 40% between 1908 and 1914
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Father Gapon
* Gapon was a prominent member of St Petersburg workers’ community
* Considered a ‘renegade priest’ who supported poor
* Established Assembly of Factory Workers (1904)
o 6000 members by end of 1904
o Aimed to support local workers and industrial reform
* Gapon wanted to change the view that government was helpless in times of hardship
