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Biology Unit 1 > 3.1.6 Immunology > Flashcards

3.1.6 Immunology Flashcards

1
Q

Where are leukocytes/white blood cells found?

A

Found in the blood, lymph, tissue fluid and body cavities.

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2
Q

What are the four categories of leukocytes?

A
  • Phagocytes
  • Granulocytes
  • T Lymphocytes
  • B Lymphocytes
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3
Q

Which categories of leukocyte are in the specific immune system?

A

T and B Lymphocytes

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4
Q

What categories of leukocyte are in the non specific immune system?

A

Phagocytes and Granulocytes

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5
Q

What is the non-specific immune system?

A

A collection of non-specific methods of destroying foreign bodies that have entered the body.

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6
Q

Give two examples of the methods of the non specific immune system

A

Inflammation and Phagocytosis

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7
Q

What leukocyte is responsible for inflammations and what does it do?

A

Granulocytes; they release histamine and prostaglandins

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8
Q

Explain Inflammation

A
  • Vasodilation occurs, causing the area to turn red
  • capillaries leak so phagocytes and Granulocytes can reach local tissue. Area swells and the dead pathogens, phagocytes and excess tissue fluid are released as pus
  • sensory neuron impulses are caused, making the area tender
  • Blood clots to seal the wound, causing a scab to be formed
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9
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

The digestion of microbes and other foreign bodies by phagocytes

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10
Q

What are phagocytes?

A

Large irregularly shaped leukocytes that have complex cytoskeleton that allows them to move and change shape

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11
Q

What are the two branches of the immune system?

A

Specific and non-specific

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12
Q

How does phagocytosis work?

A

When phagocytes crawling through blood reach microbes, they surround and engulf it, trapping the microbe in a membrane sac called a phagosome. This then fuses with lysosomes, releasing lysozymes which hydrolyse the proteins, carbs and lipids that make up the microbe, killing it

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13
Q

What is the specific immune system?

A

A collection of reactions which involves the lymphocytes and which not only kill invading pathogens but also leaves a ‘memory’ of the pathogen so it can be neutralised in subsequent infections.

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14
Q

What is the key feature of the specific immune system?

A

It is capable of self/nonself recognition; distinguishing foreign cells from its own, through use of antigens

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15
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A large molecule on the outer surface of any living cell membrane or wall. Their purpose is for cell communication, and cells from different individuals have different antigens, as they are genetically controlled, so close relatives have more similar antigens to each other

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16
Q

What are examples of antigens?

A
  • Blood groups in red blood cells.

- Capsid proteins of viruses

17
Q

What are B-Lymphocytes? (B-Cells)

A

White blood cells which make antibodies.

18
Q

What is an antibody?

A

it is a protein molecule that can bind specifically to an antigen.

19
Q

What is the structure of antibodies?

A

4 polypeptide chains joined together by disulphide bonds to form a Y shaped structure.

20
Q

What is the stem of the Y in an antibody called?

A

The constant region; because it has the same amino acid sequence and structure in all immunoglobulins/antibodies

21
Q

What are the ends of the branches of the Y structure of an immunoglobulin/antibody called?

A

The variable region; because different immunoglobulin/antibodies have a different amino acid sequence and structure here.

22
Q

What are T Lymphocytes/T cells?

A

White blood cells that have receptor proteins in their surfaces.

23
Q

What are receptor proteins?

A

Very similar to antibodies, but only have one binding site and are only found on the surface of T cells. They bind with antigens to form antigen-receptor complexes.

24
Q

Explain Macrophage and Antigen presentation

A

Macrophages ingest nonself antigens by phagocytosis. When antigens pass to the surface of the macrophage, it becomes a antigen presenting cell. This amplifies the number of foreign antigens without increasing number of pathogens. Macrophage then secretes chemicals to stimulate clonal selection

25
Q

Explain clonal selection

A

Antigen presenting cells bind to helper T cells with a matching receptor. This stimulates cytokines release from the T cell, which stimulate immature T and B cells to activate, proliferate and differentiate. When they activate they divide rapidly by mitosis, creating an army of T and B cells with the binding sites that complement the foreign antigen.

26
Q

What happens after clonal selection?

A

The activated T cells differentiate into cytotoxic killer T cells, which bind to antigens on infecting pathogens, killing them by making pores in their membrane, causing them to burst as water diffuses in. This is called cellular immunity because foreign cells are killed directly by the lymphocyte cells.

27
Q

Explain humoral immunity

A

Activated B cells differentiate into plasma cells, which contain large amounts of RER, synthesising and secreting large amounts of soluble antibodies which are carried around blood, lymph and tissue fluid, binding to antigens and killing them in various ways.

28
Q

What are the various ways plasma cells kill antigens?

A
  • Binding to antigens on viruses and bacteria, to prevent viruses and bacteria from attaching to other cells and infecting them
  • binding to free toxin proteins to change the shape of their active site so they cannot take part in disease causing reactions
  • causing agglutination
29
Q

What is Agglutination?

A

Where plasma cells link many cells together (because each antibody has 2 binding sites), immobilising viruses and precipitates soluble toxins so that they can be easily destroyed by phagocytes and killer T cells.

30
Q

Explain immunological memory

A

Some of the activated T and B cells differentiate into memory cells which remain in the blood for many years after the infection, and the memory B cells continue to release small quantities of antibody. This makes it quicker to identify and remove subsequent infections, as the memory cells will quickly divide to form a new clone army

31
Q

What is the primary immune response?

A

The slow and weak response to a first infection before memory cells have been created to quickly deal with it. When most symptoms are shown.

32
Q

What is antigenic variability?

A

When pathogens develop new strains, with new antigens that the body does not have memory cells against, prompting another primary response.

33
Q

How does vaccination work without making people sick?

A

The injection is made of non-virulent antigens, so they won’t get sick but will still make memory cells in the primary response incase of a secondary infection.

34
Q

What is the secondary effect vaccine nation might have on immunity even on those who haven’t been vaccinated?

A

Herd immunity; there are not enough hosts in which the pathogen can survive and reproduce so it won’t even spread to non immunised people.

35
Q

What is active immunity and passive immunity?

A

Active: injecting antigens to promote primary response
Passive: injecting antibodies into the blood of an already infected person.

36
Q

How is passive immunity naturally and artificially done?

A

Naturally; antibodies through breast milk and placenta to babies
Artificial; injecting antibodies

37
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

Antibodies of a particular shape made by a clone of a single B cell

38
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies made?

A
  • inject a mouse with antigens, which will show a primary immune response
  • extract B cells from mouse blood after a few days and dilute the blood into the wells of an immunoassay plate, one cell per well,
  • test each well for production of desired antibody
39
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used?

A
  • to target drugs to specific cell in the body
  • to detect the presence of specific proteins
  • fluorescent antibodies can be used to stain particular organelles in microscope slides
  • passive immunity

Biology Unit 1 (7 decks)

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