3.2.3.3 Social and economic issues associated with urbanisation Flashcards
(32 cards)
what is economic inequality?
A key feature of cities in Asia, Africa and S. America is the increasingly large wealth gap between rich and poor residents
what does social segregation refer to?
When you pass through a city (e.g. take an over ground train for half an hour through London and you will see many different areas), you can identify which areas are more affluent and you can get a sense if a neighbourhood is improving or deteriorating. The wealthy and the poor seem to concentrate spatially- a form of social segregation
what are the main reasons for social segregation in urban areas?
- Housing: Developers, builders and planners tend to build housing on plots of land with a particular market in mind. The requirements to include a proportion of ‘affordable housing’ may affect housing value in some areas. Wealthier groups can choose to pay more for houses well away from poor areas, with pleasing environments and services such as quality schools and parks. Poorer groups typically have far less choice in where to live
- Housing neighbourhoods change over time. Houses that were built for large families in Georgian and Victorian times are now too big for the average UK family. Many have been converted into flats for private rental to people on low incomes. Conversely, former poor areas are being gentrified, making them popular amongst wealthier groups. The ‘right to buy’ legislation of the 1980s transformed many council estates, as houses were bought be their occupants and improved over time
- The ethnic dimension: Ethnic groups originally came/come to the country as new immigrants (this could have been several generations ago or happening today). When they first arrive they may suffer discrimination in the job market leading to unemployment or employment in low-paid jobs. Consequently, they can only afford cheap housing and therefore they cluster in poor areas. These ethnic groupings then tend to continue into later generations
It is possible to measure the quality of life in an area using primary data, such as
the quality, density and condition of housing and the nature of the physical and social environment
It is also possible to use secondary data to assess deprivation levels. This may include poverty in terms of
low income, or shown by poor health or the lack of possessions, such as cars
It is common for the poorest parts of the UK to suffer from multiple deprivation- a combination of
social, environmental and economic deprivation
What is the Index of multiple deprivation?
a UK government qualitative study measuring deprivation at small-area level across England
how is the index of multiple deprivation calculated?
37 separate indicators, organised across seven distinct domains (such as income, employment and crime) of deprivation are combined, using appropriate weights, to calculate the Index of Multiple Deprivation 2015 (IMD 2015). This is an overall measure of multiple deprivation experienced by people living in an area and is calculated for every neighbourhood, in England. Every such neighbourhood in England is ranked according to its level of deprivation relative to that of other areas
what were the key findings of 2015 IMD?
- The vast majority of the most deprived areas in England were in cities, specifically in areas that have historically had large heavy industry, manufacturing and/or mining sectors, coastal towns and large parts of East London.
- The 20 most deprived local authorities in 2015 were largely the same as found for the 2010 Index, however the London Boroughs of Hackney, Tower Hamlets, Newham and Haringey have become relatively less deprived and no longer feature in this list (gentrification is largely responsible for this)
what is important to remember regarding the IMD?
these statistics are a measure of relative deprivation, not affluence, and to recognise that not every person in a highly deprived area will themselves be deprived. Likewise, there will be some deprived people living in the least deprived areas
The term urban social exclusion refers to
to the problems faced by residents in areas of multiple deprivation. These people are excluded from full participation in society by their social and physical circumstances. Often, they cannot access a decent job because of poor education or obtain decent housing because of poverty. They often suffer poor health and from high levels of crime in an unattractive physical environment. In a city, inequality can cause lack of social cohesion and in extreme cases, civil unrest
Inner city areas have traditionally been the most deprived urban neighbourhoods, why?
These characteristics of decline were caused by de-industrialisation in the second half of the twentieth century when unemployment became a major problem. Population loss followed and the movement of younger, more affluent and more skilled residents left behind a population who were older, less skilled and poor
is there a pattern to urban poverty?
There is no clear geographical pattern to urban poverty today. It clearly exists but the image of a troubled inner core surrounded by affluent suburbs is out-dated. Some of the highest levels of urban poverty are now found in peripheral estates while many inner city areas have been transformed by regeneration. Rich and poor areas today are found across city and suburb alike
explain the relationship between inequality and the poverty cycle
Inequality remains a challenge for cities in the twenty-first century. The inequalities within a city tend to exist in terms of access to job opportunities, education, housing and basic public services such as water and sanitation. In many poorer cities for example, adequate water and sanitation services are primarily channelled to wealthier neighbourhoods, while low-income neighbourhoods often depend on distant and unsafe water wells and lack any form of waste disposal. The poor also tend to live in overcrowded, informal housing lacking basic infrastructure and services. The knock-on effects of this are poorer health, higher unemployment and a lack of social mobility. The poor get stuck in a cycle of poverty from which it is hard to escape
NOTE: There is a difference between poverty and inequality:
- Poverty is an absolute term, referring to a level of deprivation that does not change over time
-Inequality is a relative term referring to the differences between people, usually economic, over a geographic distribution
In reality, poverty and inequality often rise and fall together, but this is not always the case. Inequality can be high in a society without high levels of poverty due to a large difference between the top and middle of the income spectrum
what are some general strategies to tackling poverty and inequality?
• Enforcing a living wage or providing an urban subsidy: In China, a government subsidy paid to urban dwellers to bring incomes up to a minimum level of equivalent to approx £450 has had extraordinary success in reducing urban poverty. The London Living Wage has also achieved notable success with over 10,000 families lifted out of working poverty since 2005
• Provision of schools:
Education may be taken for granted in many high-income countries but schooling beyond primary school level helps lift millions of people out of poverty in lower-income countries
• Greater provision of public transport:
Affordable public transport schemes improve mobility for the city poor, enabling them access to employment, education and services that could improve their lives.
Example – the Rio de Janeiro sky-high transport system, installed in 2011 provides service to 13 favelas and provide access to the main part of the city and over 10,000 people use this service daily
• ‘Fairness Commissions’:
Example - A number of British cities including Liverpool and Sheffield have established ‘Fairness Commissions’ – groups of people tasked with looking at how local areas can address inequality
what does cultural diversity refer to?
the existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society- culture can relate to nationality, race, age and traditions
what is a key influence of cultural diversity?
iimmigration
cultural diversity tends to flourish where?
urban areas, especially big cities- London, New York and Amsterdam have for example received migrants from all over the world , which has led to the creation of multicultural urban societies
London is considered to be one of the most diverse countries in the world, more than ___ languages are spoken by the people of London
300
what has increased movement around and so now it is common to find people from different parts of the world living in major urban areas
globalisation
the term diaspora is commonly used to describe
a large group of people with a similar heritage or homeland who have settled elsewhere in the world - in some cities, these diasporas make up a larger proportion than the indigenous residents
why is there greater cultural diversity in cities?
cultural diversity results largely from immigration and immigrants are more likely to choose to live in urban areas because:
- cities tend to offer a greater range of employment opportunities
- cities are the first point of entry for many immigrants
- cities tend to house earlier immigrants with the same ethnicity
- established cultural diversity in cities means that there are specialist shops and religious centres located there such as halal and kosher food shops, mosques and synagogues
explain how in the UK, there have been a umber of significant migrations which have shaped the cultural diversity of our major cities
- large concentrations Indian ethnic minority in Greater Manchester, where labour-intensive industries such as clothing were traditionally located
- more recently, the influx of Eastern European migrants has changed the demography of many British cities- in Southampton, more than 10% of the population are now polish
