Chapter 3

Question 1

Origins of criminal behavior

• children vs. later onset offenders
• major culprits of crime (7)
• Genes and antisocial behavior (2 challenges)

Answer 1

• Children who show antisocial behavior often exhibit biochem abnormalities while later onset offenders more influenced by social factors
• Greed, desire for power, glorification of violence, poverty, high unemployment, poor edu, faulty parenting, and group values that deviate from norms are major culprits of crime
• little scientific doubt that genes play a role in antisocial behavior. Challenging questions are
  1. Determing how much is influenced by genes (use of adoption/twin studies)
  2. Finding which genes are responsible (Investigate associations between polymorphisms, DAT1 & 5hTT, and criminal behavior/low self-control)

Question 2

Biopsychologists

Answer 2

study bio aspects of behavior, try to determimne which genetic variables play part in criminal behavior, how important they are, and how to modify them. They don’t believe that genetics are sole or prim cause of human behavior

Question 3

Genetics and Antisocial Behavior

- two methods of genetic research

Answer 3

1. Behavior Genetics – examins role genes play in formation and developemnt of human behavior. Investigates relationships between genes and enviro in determing individual diffs in behavior. Has advantage of clearly distinguising genetic from environmental influences
2. Molecular Genetics- studies structures and functions of genes at molecular level. Focuses on specific genes as foundations for certain behavior. All info needed to construct a mammal is containted in 100,000 genes. Studies how genes from generations are transferred. Concentrates on polymers of DNA.

Question 4

Behavior Genetics

• 3 reasons for behavioral diffs
• studies

Answer 4

• Traditional behavior genetics view behavioral diffs as result of 3 genetic or enviro sources:
  1. Influences attributable to genetic effects
  2. Enviromental influences shared by siblings
  3. Influences that aris from nshared enviro exps that makes siblings diff
• Magnitude of these gentic and enviro influences usually obtained from stat analyses comparing identical twins to fraternal. One way to determine role of genetics in crime is to compare incidence and type of delinquency among identical and fraternal twins

Question 5

Dizygotic twins vs. Monzygotic

• prenatal enviros
• temperament in twins

Answer 5

• AKA fraternal develop from two fertalized eggs and are nor ore genetically alike than nontwins; share one half of genes
• AKA identical develop from single egg, always-same sex and share same genes
• • Approx 2/3rds of MZ twins are monchorionic (share same chorion) and 1/3rd of the MZ pair is dichorionic (2 diff chorions). Chorion is outer membrane enclosing embryo. Therefore, some identical twins develop in slightly diff prenatal enviros which may contribute to some imdivid diffs
• -Study shows that the temperaments (emotional tone) became more similar for identical twins than frat when they go older

Question 6

Twin studies

• research on genes and their role (%)
• influences (2)
• additional influences

Answer 6

• Data shows genes influence approx 50% of pop variation in antisocial behavior, indicating the genetic role. However this is only ½ leaving room for enviro influences
  1) Genes are not static, fixed and immutable. Envior influences can directly change gene expression
  2) Psychosocial influences can result in modifications to DNA that have influences on neuron functioning and behavior
• Peer/sibling interactions, child abuse, social modeling, brain injuries can also have neg influences while a positve warm parent can shift beahvior to be prosoical even in those who are genetially vulnerable to antisocial behavior

Question 7

Shared environments

- % of antisocial

Answer 7

AKA common enviros include prenatal and life exps affecting twins in same way (twins raised by same bio parents)

• Shared enviros are apt to promote high trait or behabior similairty
• Compared to genes that promote 50% of variation in antisocial behavior, shared enviros contribute 15-20%

Question 8

Non-shared environments

• % antisocial behavior
• shared vs nonshared

Answer 8

• are living exps diff for each twin (being raised in diff home enviro, diff activities, diff schools)
• Nonshared enviors account for 30% of variation in antisocial behavior
• However, developmental factors play a role: twin research shows that for a variety of traits, the magnitude of genetic and nonshared enviro influences increases as a person gets older, where the mag of shared decreases.

Question 9

Concordance rate
- first research
with %’s

Answer 9

• is the term for degree to which related pairs both show a behavior
• Johannes Lange was first to study concordance and criminality in his book “crime is destiny”. Found crime concordance of 77% for 13 adult identical twins and only 12% for 17 fraternal

Question 10

The Twin’s Early Development Study

• heritability
• trait

Answer 10

is one of most watched longitudinal twin studies conducted in United Kingdom on sample of twins born in 94,94, 96. Explores behavior problems and problematic development in lang, cognition, and academic abilities from childhood to adolescense

• TED research supports nature and nurture both contributing to behavior
• TEDS research indicates tht nature has considerable influence on behavior problems. Shows antisocial behavior modesdtly influenced by heritability. Also Callous unemotional trait (assoc with antisocial) has very high heritablity and low shared enviro influence

Question 11

E-risk study

- males vs. females

Answer 11

Study with MZ and DZ twins in E-Risk study. Assessed antisocial behavior thru interviews and enviro risk by amount of maltreatment. Found that maltreatment on risk of antisocial development was strongest among those at high gentic risk (those who are predisposed to be antisocial more likely if maltreated)
-Evidence shows enviro affects fade as move into adulthood but genetic influence remains. This effect stronger in males, female aggression more influence by family enviro

Question 12

TCHAD

• boys
• later study with girls

Answer 12

• Twin Study of Child and Adolescent Development

• Another longitudal study; gave a behavioral scale to measure parental reported aggression in chidren ages 8-9. Then asked children to report own behavior 8 years later. Used both MZ and DZ twins in effort to distangle genetic factors from enviro
• Found that genetic factors played important role in early onset aggressive behaviors but less important role in delinquent behavior in male adolescents
• Participants where all boys
• However, in a study with girls, genetics had a more import role in both aggressive behaviors in early childhood and delinquent in adolescense

Question 13

Adoption studies

• point of adoption studies?
• first adoption study
• study of adoptees and criminal parents
• Most comprhensive adoption study

Answer 13

-Helps identify enviros most conductive to criminality
-Schulsinger Denmark Study: explored incidence of psychopahty in bio relatives of adopted adults. Compared 57 adopted psychopathic adults to 57 nonpsychopathic.
Found that 3.9% of bio relatives of psycho adoptess could also be psychopathic whereas only 1.4% of contorl groups bio relatives could (not stat signf)

• found 16% of adoptess of criminal parents had criminal records vs. 8.9% nonadoptes. A check on bio fathers of adoptess showes that they were 3x more likely to committ crime
• Mednick, Gabrielle, Hutchings: Compared court convictions of 14,000 adoptess with conviction records of bio and adop parents. Showed signf relation btween conviction history of adopttes and bio parents. Type of crime crime had no relation

Question 14

Molecular Genetics

• point of molecular genetics
• mice research
• genes assoc with antisocial behavior
• violent offenders impairments
• other brain research

Answer 14

• Attempts to answer which genes predispose to which kinds of antisocial behavior?
• Research shows that if a MAOA genes is neutrilized in mice they become aggressive
• At least 7 genes identified by molecular genetic research to be assoc with antisocial behavior. They mostly contribute to impairments in brain sturcture and function which result in antisocial behavior.
• Sturctural or functional prob in prefrontal cortex also assoc with impulsive violent offenders
• Some research shows reducded glucose metabolism in prefrontal cortex in murders and reduction of gray matter of criminal psychopaths (due to genes not trauma)

Question 15

MAOA

MAOA-L (how many have?)

Answer 15

• Monoamine oxidase appears to paly role in preventing antisocial behavior, low activity linked to aggression, nicknamed warrior gene
• carried by 1/3rd of population in Western societies, comes into play in some form of provocation. Those with MAO-L gene who were exposed to adversity in childhood were likely to report offending in adulthood

Question 16

Psychophysiology

• is?
• type of research
• theory of antisocial behavior
• imp brain structure
• antisocial ppl

Answer 16

is study of dynamic interactions between behavior and autonomic nervous system

• Heart rates (cardio activity) and electrical conductance in the skin(electrodermal actitivity) are the two most used measures of psychophsysiology examining relationships between antisoical behavior and autonomic activity
• Autonomic arousal theory of crime states that chronic offenders will have low levels of auto activity. Low levels predispose person to commit crime because this produces some degree of fearlessness and encourages antisocial stimulation seeking (excitement) They don’t have fear and are not considered with getting caught
• Amgydala is a brain sturcture in limbic system that regulates fear and other emotional responses. Involved in impulsive aggression. Amgydala is related to psychopahty and callous unemotional traits
• Studies show antisocial ppl have low levels of physio arousal

Question 17

Temperament

• c-p relationship
• 3 assumptions

Answer 17

• is natural mood disposition determined by genetics and bio influences; How we approach social environment influences how it will react with us
• Ill-tempered child may feel frustrated, parents feel overwhelmed and becomes reciprocal interaction producing disruption in c-p relationship. Parental responsivness, nurturance and warmth are critical core determinants of p-c relationships
  1. Biological
  2. Starts in infancy and continues into adulthood
  3. Influenced by environment

Question 18

Thomas & Chess perspective on temperament

• temperament is?
• the study (3)
• research in infancy

Answer 18

-temp is innate readiness to respond to events that is evolving and influenced by family, parenting styles, and social environment. Temparment: has a constitutional bio basis, appears in infancy and continues thru life, and is influenced by enviro.
-Asked parents to report 9 characteristics of their infants and found
1. Easy child has high rythmicity, positive moods, high approachability, high adaptablility, and low intestity of mood expression
2. Diffictult child shows opposite; irreg bio functioning, initial aversion, slow adaptibility, high intensity of emotions, neg mood
3. Slow-to-warm-up child is high active, withdrawl from new stimuli, low adaptibility, neg mood and low intesnstiy
− Difficult children have cluster of inborn temperamental attribs that make child rearing difficult
−Most research on temp focuses on infant bc connection between it and behavior is uncomplicated at this stage and becomes more complex as child matures and interacts with enviro

Question 19

Temperament indicators (2)

• other indicator
• impulsive children
• boys and girls
• parents

Answer 19

−Most experts agree that Activity and Emotionality are two of the behaviors that are strong indicators of temp
1. Activity is gross motor movement across various settings (move of arms, legs)
2. Emotionality is irritability, sensitivity, soothabiity, and general intensity of emotional reactions
−Self-regulation (degree of impulsivity) also included in temp
−Impulsive children move at higher pace against envroments and aggressive
−Girls seem temperamentally better than boys at self-reg
−Temp of parents must be considered as possible component of antisocial behavior development. Parents and offspring often resemble temps and personality

Question 20

Environmental risk factors

• FASD and other risks
• youth w/ FASD

Answer 20

-In utero exps play role in predisoposition to criminal behavior. During preg, fetus exposed to influences that can adversly affect development (exposure to a toxic or diseased enviro)
Ex: fetus’s exposed to drugs at high risk for conduct probs 10-13 yrs later as are fetu’s exposed to pot, alcohol, and cigs
-Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is a serious med condiction resulting from alcohol exposure prenatally. Youth with FASD linked to high rate of self reg probs, antisocial behavior; have low level of serotonin
-Exposure to lead another example; leads to cog problems

Question 21

Birth complications

• common psychosocial risks
• study of maternal rejection
• malnutrition
• other factor

Answer 21

• Assoc with violoent persistent offending but usually more signif when combined with other psychosocial risks.
• Most common risks are maternal sep, maternal rejection, marital discord, parental mental health prob, parental absence
• Study found birth complications combined with maternal rejection predicted careers of violent crime (but not nonviolent crimes)
• Maternal malnutrition in combo with adverse caregiving also linked to violent behavir in children
• Study found obsterrical complications increase risk of violence when combo with adverse family enviros

Question 22

Nicotine, Alcohol and Drug Exposure

• FASD in youth
• maternal smoking, boys vs. girls
• mothers and sons (%)
• caution in interp (2)

Answer 22

• Studies suggest large % of youth in confinement suffer from undiagnosed FASD
• Evidence for relationship between maternal smoking and antisocial in boys, weak for girls
• Study found mothers who smoked during preg had sons who where twofold risk of comitting crimes. Smoking during preg may lead to brain deficits in offenders.
  1. However, mothers who smoke diff from other mothers bc they often have lower income, less edu and lower SES and have history of antisocial behavior
  2. Maternal sub abuse may link to sub abuse in offspring but difficult to determine if its due to predisposition, modeling, or in utero effects

Question 23

Brain development

• brain development and antisocial behavior
• pathological violence
• link strongest when
• phineas and gage
• other structure

Answer 23

• Neuro and brain dysfunction due to faulty brain developemnt linked to antisocial behavior. Particulary due to pathological violence (impulsive violence occuring in context of emotional arousal and provocaction)
• Link is especially strong if dysfunction in frontal lobe (organzing, though planning and self-reg in this part)
• Phineas and Gage: classic study of frontal portion of brain; Gage’s brain damage caused ill-temper, poor social judgment, uncontrollable anger

-Limbic system, a group of connected brain structures and circuits that is a component of impulsive violence

Question 24

Brain plasticity

• is?
• plasticity
• imp experiences of infancy (ages)
• prevention of antisocial behavior (2)

Answer 24

• After birth early experiences are crucial in shape and pruning neural synapses that underly functions
• Plasticity is a phnomenon where brain structure and function are affected by experience. Perhaps most remarkable discovery in developmental sciences
• One of most impartnat exps of infant is nurturant and sensitive care. Parents encouraged to sensitivly nurture young children bc these contigent sensory exps stimulat brain
• First three to four years are signf for prevention of antisocial behavior but other developmental periods imp too; Some evidence that by 4th year plasticity of brain for language begins to decrease

Question 25

Hormones and neuroT’s

• serotonin
• low serotonin
• hormonal effects

Answer 25

• Serotonin may play most signif role in aggression and violence. Exists in large amounts in frontal lobe (planning and self-reg). Deficiencies in serotoinin result in dishinhibition of aggression and provocation. High levels may explain diffs in physical aggression betwn men and women
• Humans who become violent after drinking and children who torture animals have low concentration of serotin

-Research shows some hormonal effects in males may account for higher levels of aggression (testo assoc with violent crimes)

Question 26

Neuropsychological factors

• neuropsych deficit
• malnutrition (age)

Answer 26

-Neuropsych deficits (especially those assoc with executive functions in frontal lob) are risk factors for antisocial behavior
-Executive function is higher level of cog process that organize, plan behavior, logic abstract reasoing. Also prioritizes steps necessary for solving problems and self-control
-Deficits in exec functions may lead to antisocial behavior
Acting without thinking assoc with deficits in exec function and is defined as hyperactivity without evidence of eliberation or attention to the enviro

-Malnutrition at age three predisposes child to neurocog deficits which predipsoed child to antisocial behavior

Question 27

Risk taking

• examples
• vulnerability to risk taking
• when does it decrease

Answer 27

-Involves sub abuse, drinking, smoking, attemtped suicide, risky sex. A major factor leading to delinquent behavior Especially vulnerable when involved with peers
(Crimes committed in groups are seldom premeditated)

• High level of vulnerability to risk taking result of high levels of sensation or reward seeking and low impulse control
• Risk taking decreases as teen ages but remains till 25

Question 28

Steinberg’s theory

• his theory? means?
• Risky behavior (2) in what parts?
• the 2 mean?
• gap

Answer 28

Dual Systems Model of Adolescent Risk Taking: theory stating impulsive risk taking and self control develop along diff timetables and have diff neurological influences during adolescence. Risky behavior in adolescence is product of interaction between developmental changes within 2 brain systems: 1. socioemotional in limbic & amygdala and prefrontal areas; 2. a cognitive control system in the prefrontal
1. Socioemtional system is a processing center for reward seeking, social info, and emotional reactions that is more sensitive during puberty
2. The cognitive control system is similar to executive function, responsible for self-reg and impulse control, matures into adulthood
These 2 brain systems mean that young teens have heightened senstitivty to emotions and stimulation seeking but also can cognitively process considerable amounts of info
-Steinberg states the temporal gap btwn development of socioemotional systems and maturation of cognitive controls creates period of vulnerability to risk taking. 2 stystems don’t become balanced until mid 20s.

Question 29

Self Report studies in boys for offenses

Answer 29

-Self report studies find 90% of boys admit to comitting criminal offenses for which they could be incarcerated

Question 30

Education risk reduction programs

Answer 30

-Teenages know a lot but have difficulty controlling their behavior. Most edu programs to reduce risky behavior are more succesful in changing their knowledge about risks than alternating behavior (although teens know risks by 14, inhibitory mechansims to assist risky behavior no developed till 20)

Question 31

Learning Disabities and delinquency

Answer 31

LD’s can be over diagnosed. Unknown relationship between LD and juvenile delinquency

Question 32

Role of serotonin

Answer 32

inversely related to violence (as sero goes down, behavior increases)

Question 33

Skinner: Learning and Situational Factors

• criminal behavior
• human nature

Answer 33

• Undesirable behaviors result of reward bad behaviors

- humans born neutral and enviro, culture, shapes behavior