Chapter 32, Cont. & Change Flashcards
Social Continuities
Ottoman:
- discipline of the elite Janissary corps declined
- sultans continued to reign
Russia:
- tsarist autocracy refused to yield autocratic powers and retained exclusive authority over national issues
- landowning nobility possessed disproportionately large share of both votes and seat
- foreign investors satisfied w/ intensified industrialization, a growing Russian business class benefited from gov’t policy that protected domestic industries and its profits
- Russian businesspeople didn’t challenge tsarist autocracy (no material/ideological reasons to challenge imperial power)
- peasants discontent w/ amount of land
- Jews = targets for suspicious => anti-Jewish riots => migration
- emancipation were unfavorable to most peasants (few found prosperity, the rest found themselves in debt for most of their lives, a source of alienation and radicalization)
China: -many native Chinese subjects despised the Manchu ruling class as foreigners
Ottoman Political Continuities
Ottoman:
- military capacity declined, became vulnerable to powerful neighbors
- central gov’t effectiveness declined, lost power in provinces to own officials
- survived principally b/c European diplomats could not agree on how to dispose of the empire w/o upsetting European balance of power
- continued to lose wars, subject peoples continued to seek autonomy or independence
Economic Continuities
Ottoman:
- incomes declined; reduced morale, recruitment difficulties, rise in corruption
- taxation increases to offset revenue losses; peasantry exploitation increases, agricultural production decreased
China:
-opium continued to be traded despite government authorities taking steps to halt the illicit trade
Russia:
-emancipation resulted in little if any increase in agricultural production
Russia Social Change
Russia:
- serf emancipation
- social reform => gov’t sponsored industrialization (radical change)
- gov’t created zemstvos (elected district assemblies) for health, .edu and welfare
- E exploitation, lack of P freedom => cause of underground movements
- antigov’t protest and revolutionary activity increases (social tensions => radical reforms)
- center of opposition: university students + intelligentsia; sought substantial political reform and thorough social change
- Sergei Witte urged tsar to create elected legislative assembly
- legal reforms = emergence of attorneys and other legal experts (professional standards declined judicial corruption)
- industrial growth generated urban working class (bad conditions)
Interactive Changes
- amount of land under cultivation increases only slowly during the same period, population growth strained Chinese resources
- movement leaders built modern shipyards, constructed railroads, established weapons industries, opened steel foundries with blast furnaces, and founded academics to develop scientific expertise; did not introduce enough industry to bring real military and economic strength to China
Economic Changes
Ottoman:
- independent rulers: fiscal and administrative institutions to own interests, taxes for themselves (nominal payments to treasury); central state of revenue deprived
- economic ills aggravated the military and political problems of the ottoman state, moving toward fiscal insolvency and financial dependency
Russia:
- massive program of railway construction
- remodeled the state bank and encouraged establishment of saving banks; supported infant industries w/ high protective tariffs, securing large foreign loans from Western European to finance industrialization
- prohibited the formation of trade unions and outlawed strikes (continued in spite of restrictions)
China:
- treaties broadened concessions given to foreign powers, legalizing opium trade and permitting establishment of Christian missions throughout China, opening additional treaty ports
- various treaties prevented Qing government from levying tariffs on imports to protect domestic industries
Japan:
- new leaders put regime on secure financial footing by revamping tax system
- gain taxes => fixed-money tax (predictable revenues)
- peasants left to deal with market fluctuations in grain prices
- state assessed taxes on the potential productivity of arable land, guaranteed that those who maximized production could afford to hold on to their land
- created a modern transportation, communications, and educational infrastructure; establishment of telegraph, railroad, and steamship lines tied local and regional markets into a national economic network
- gov’t removed barriers to commerce and trade by abolishing guild restrictions and internal tariffs
Social Terms
industrial sections of St. Petersburg and Moscow became notorious for working conditions
a group of workers marched on tsar’s Winter Palace in St. Peterburg to petition Nicholas for popularly elected assembly and other political concessions
Nicholas II permitted establishment of Duma, Russia’s first parilamentary institution and was an act of major concession
Political Terms
Russia:
-Baltic provinces, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia and central Asia, dissidents opposed tsarist autocracy on ethnic, political, and social grounds
-Land and Freedom Party promoted assassination of prominent officials as a means for political reform
-Nicholas II championed oppression and police control
Russo-Japanese war began with Japanese surprise attack on Russian naval squadron at Port Arthur ending with the destruction of Russian navy
China:
- after 1850, rebellions erupted throughout China; Nian, Muslim, Tungan rebellion; most dangerous: Taiping rebellion (village schoolteacher Hong Xiuquan provided inspiration and leadership)
- Hong and his followers in Society of God Worshipers took Nanjing and made it capital of their Taiping kingdom
- Dowager Cixi diverted funds (navy => marble boat)
- France = Vietnam, Great Britian = Burma, Japan = Korea, Taiwan, Liaodong Peninsula
- Spheres of Influence setbacks => Hundred Days Reforms
- Kang Youwei Liang Qichao published series of treaties
- Taiping rebellion’s radical features: appealed to discontent subjects
1. abolition of private property
2. creation of communal wealth (needs)
3. no footbinding or concubinage
4. free public education, language simplified, mass literacy
5. simplification of written language
Japan:
foreign influences: Fukuzawa Yukichi (observations in series of popular reports, supporting equality and constitutional gov’t) and Ito Hirobumi (drew inspiration from German constitution in a governing document for Japan)
-fleet of US warships => Tokyo Bay, demanded permission to establish trade and diplomatic relations with japan
-ending of extraterritoriality (1899)
-equal power alliance with Britain (1902)
-displays of military prowess in victories over the Chinese empire (1894 - 95) and Russian empires (1904-05)
Economic Terms
Russia:
trans-Siberian railway, opening Siberia to large-scale settlement, exploitation and industrialization
French and Belgian capital (steel and coal) British funds (petroleum industry in Caucasus)
China:
Commissioner Lin Zexu’s uncompromising policy ignited a war that ended in a humiliating defeat for China
-agreements guided Chinese relations with foreign states; conceded Hong Kong Island in perpetuity to Britain, opened five chinese ports to commerce and residence, compelled gov’t to extend most-favored-nation status to Britain, and granted extraterritoriality to British subjects
Ottoman Political Changes
Ottoman:
-Janissaries became powerful political force by manipulating palace coups
-Ottoman leaders launched reforms modeled along western European lines to strength/preserve the state in response to recurring and deepening crises
more effective army
secondary education for boys
power from elites to sultan and cabinet
taxing rural landlords
abolishing system of military land grants
undermining ulama
-Tanzimat reforms: commercial, penal, maritime, civil code
-Young Ottomans: individual freedom, local autonomy, decentralization
-Young Turks: dethroned Mehmed, stopping sultan rule (not reign); policies aggravated tensions between Turkish rulers and outside subjects
China Political Changes
China:
-European powers inflicted military defeats on Qing forces and compelled leaders to accept a series of humiliating treaties
undermined sovereignty
carved China into spheres of influence (E exploitation)
handicapped Qing Dynasty’s control over domestic disorder
-faced with foreign intrusion and internal upheavals => reform programs
-large scale rebellions reflected increasing poverty and discontent of Chinese peasantry
-contending w/ aggressive foreign powers and lands ravaged by domestic rebellion, Qing rulers recognized changes were necessary for empire to survive; authorities tried to fashion an efficient and benevolent Confucian gov’t
Japan Political Changes
Japan:
-opposition forces used excuse of foreign intrusion to overthrow discredited shogun and the Tokugawa bakufu
-Meiji restoration returned authority to the Japanese emperor and brought an end to the series of military governments that dominated Japan since 1185, dedicating to twin goals of prosperity and strength “rich country, strong army” (political and economic equality with foreign powers)
universal primary and secondary education (+universities)
foreign influences
abolition of social order
revamping the tax system
promulgated Meiji constitution
creation of national economic network
removed barriers to commerce and trade
Russia Political Changes
Russia:
-battlefield reverses showed economical/technological disparity
-military defeat (see: Crimean War) compelled the tsarist autocracy to reevaluate the Russian social order and undertake an extensive restructuring program
revision of judiciary system; W. European model for law of courts (independent judges + system of appellate courts)
trial by jury (criminal) + justices of peace (minor)
-motivation for Russian industrialization was government policy rather than entrepreneurial initiative
-frightened by radical reforms, tsarist authorities used oppression (publication censorship + secret police for breaking dissident organizations)
-terrorism of Alexander II brought end of reform and prompted tsarist autocracy to adopt an uncompromising policy of repression
-Bloody Sunday: labor unrest, peasant insurrections, student demonstrations, mutinies in army and navy
-urban workers created soviets to organize strikes and negotiate with employers and government authorities
China Social Changes
China:
- concentration of land in hands of wealthy elites aggravated peasant discontent, as did widespread corruption of government officials and increasing drug addition
- Taiping decreed equality of men and women; regulations prohibited sexual intercourse among their followers, including married couples but Hong and other high leaders maintained large harems
Japan Social Changes
Japan:
- daimyo yielded land to the throne in exchange for patents of nobility; new prefectural governors prevented revival of old domain loyalties + replaced old domains w/ prefectures and gov’t controlled metropolitan districts; daimyo removed from power
- abolished samurai class and stipends that supported it
- raised conscript army depriving samurai of military monopoly they held for centuries
- gov’t sold most enterprises to private investors w/ close ties to government officials => concentration of enormous economic power in hands of zaibatsu, or financial cliques
- treated formation of unions and organization of strikes as criminal activities
