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PSYB3 > Forensic Psychology > Flashcards

Forensic Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

What four factors make it difficult to define crime?

A

Historical Context, Culture, Age, Specific Circumstances

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2
Q

Why is historical context a factor?

A

What is defined as a crime at one point in time may not be at another point. For example, homosexuality was an offence in the UK until 1967.

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3
Q

Why is culture a factor?

A

Different cultures have different views for example in some cultures it is acceptable to have more than one wife whereas in the UK it is regarded as bigamy.

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4
Q

Why is age a factor?

A

Age determines whether or not someone is a criminal or not, for example if a 3 year old stole a sweet from a store would not be regarded as a criminal unlike a 30 year old who steals who would be a criminal.

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5
Q

Why are specific circumstances a factor?

A

Individual circumstances may determine if someone is a criminal or not

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6
Q

How is crime measured traditionally?

A

Official Crime Statistics

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7
Q

What do Putwain and Sammons (2002) suggest about OCS?

A

They widely underestimate actual crime figures.

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8
Q

What are Official Statistics?

A

The official crime rate based on crimes that are reported and recorded by the police.
** They may be accurate but may not reflect the true extent of crime.

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9
Q

What did Hollin (1992) suggest?

A

Official statistics only account of 25% of actual crime.

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10
Q

What do criminologists refer to unreported crime as?

A

The ‘Dark Figure’ - all unreported crime or crime which does not appear in the official statistics

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11
Q

List 6 reasons why crime is unreported.

A

1) There is no victim. eg speeding
2) Victim is too afraid
3) Too trivial
4) Can’t be bothered/inconvenient
5) Mistrust police
6) Perpetrator is family/friend

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12
Q

List 7 reasons why crime not recorded.

A

1) Insufficient time
2) Too trivial
3) One of several offences
4) Not a priority
5) Victim withdraws charge
6) Lack of evidence
7) Police recording rules (differ)

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13
Q

What did Farrington & Dowds (1985) study?

A

A: Investigated differences in crime figures between counties in UK
M: Analysed a random sample of police records of crimes in Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, Staffordshire
R:Nottinghamshire Police recorded thefts of less than £10 whereas other forces regarded as minor & did not record it.
C: Police recording procedures can create distortions

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14
Q

What is a Victim Survey?

A

A survey which involves asking people whether or not they have been a victim of crime over a specific time period.

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15
Q

What is the most well known Victim Survey in the UK?

A

British Crime Survey (BCS)

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16
Q

How often is the BCS carried out?

A

Every 2 years with a huge sample from aged 16 upwards.

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17
Q

How large was the BCS in 2006/7?

A

47,000 people with a booster of 4,000 aged 16-24.

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18
Q

Why was there an additional booster for the 2006/7 BCS?

A

Because people from the 16-24 group that were randomly selected declined.

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19
Q

What is the BCS process like?

A

Heavily structured interviews with pre-set questions including optional responses for participants to choose from.

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20
Q

What did the 2006/7 survey show?

A

It showed that victim reports were more than the police recorded crime.

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21
Q

What were the differences in overall crime between BCS and OS?

A

OS - 2% decrease

BCS - 3% increase

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22
Q

What were the differences in violent crime between OS and BCS?

A

OS - 1% decrease for violent robbery and 7% decrease in sexual offences.
BCS - 5% increase overall in violent offences.

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23
Q

What are self-report measures in regards to crime?

A

Offender self reports/surveys ask people about their offending behaviour.

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24
Q

What did Putwain & Sammons (2002) say about offender surveys?

A

If they are accurate they can be extremely helpful providing useful additional information about the number of crimes being committed and also how many people are responsible

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25
Q

Name one Offender Survey

A

Offending Crime and Justice Survey (OCJS)

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26
Q

What does the OCJS do?

A

Interviews young people in England and Wales about their attitudes and experiences towards offending behaviour.

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27
Q

How does the OCJS gather its information?

A

Due to the sensitive nature of the questions, all responses are gathered via computer ( which will increase validity hopefully)

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28
Q

What is the aim of the OCJS?

A

To assess the extent of offending, antisocial behaviour and drug use among young people aged 10-25years old.

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29
Q

How are participants for the OCJS selected?

A

Random selection & longitudinal survey

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30
Q

What age group does the OCJS focus on?

A

10-25

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31
Q

How large is the OCJS sample?

A

5,000

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32
Q

What did the OCJS reveal in 2006?

A

1,669 young people revealed most crimes were alcohol-related.

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33
Q

Name one negative evaluative point about Official Statistics

A

They tend to under-represent crime = dark figure

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34
Q

What is a strength of victim surveys?

A

They are carried out on a large scale and are randomly selected so tend to be representative

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35
Q

What is a limitation of victim surveys?

A

They rely on accuracy of recall & retrospective reporting may be inaccurate. Telescoping may appear if ppts think of an event which happened years ago as if it was recently.

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36
Q

State two limitations of offender surveys.

A

1) They rely on offender’s honest reporting some may lie or exaggerate the truth
2) Only certain age/social groups are targeted so results could be deemed as bias

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37
Q

What did Douglas and Burgess (1986) define offender profiling as?

A

An investigative technique used to identify the major personality and behaviour characteristics of the offender based upon analysis of the crime(s)

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38
Q

What is the typology approach?

A

The typology approach is based on offender profiling.

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39
Q

What two categories did the FBI split profiling into?

A

Organised and Disorganised

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40
Q

How was this distinction created?

A

Through interviewing 36 serial sex offenders who volunteered to speak about their crimes

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41
Q

What did Douglas et al. (1992) suggest about organised/disorganised?

A

It can be applied to all sexually motivated murders and in some cases arson.

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42
Q

In 1992 what did Douglas suggest?

A

Douglas suggested a third category called “mixed offender” should be added to accommodate offenders who cannot be easily categorised.

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43
Q

List the crime scene characteristics of an organised offender.

A 
Body hidden
Evidence of planning
Controlled conversation
Use of restraints
Removes weapon from scene
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44
Q

List the crime scene characteristics of a disorganised offender.

A 
Little evidence of planning
Body in open view
Little conversation
Leaves evidence- semen,blood etc
Victim is known 
Little use of restraint
45
Q

List the likely personality traits of an organised offender.

A 
Avg. to high intelligence
Socially competent 
Skilled employment
Sexually competent
Living with partner
46
Q

List the likely personality traits of a disorganised offender

A 
Below-avg. intelligence
Socially inadequate 
Unskilled employment
Sexual incompetent 
Lives alone or close to the scene
47
Q

What investigative approach does the USA use?

A

Top-Down (analyse the crime scene first)

48
Q

What investigative approach does the UK use?

A

Bottom- Up (analyse the crime scene last)

49
Q

State one limitation of organised/disorganised distinction

A

The validity of this approach has not yet been established.

50
Q

State a methodological limitation of the organised/disorganised distinction.

A

The sample size was extremely limited (36)

51
Q

What are the issues with the original notion of organised/disorganised?

A

1) Oversimplified

2) The need for a 3rd category questions the original notion

52
Q

What did Jenkins (1988) suggest?

A

Two different categories for serial killers - the respectable type and the predictable type

53
Q

What did Holmes and De burger (1988) propose?

A

Six types that could be defined according to the combination of 14 characteristics

54
Q

What did Canter (2004) question?

A

There is evidence for organised features for serial killers however there is none for the disorganised type.

55
Q

What was Canter’s study in 2004?

A

A - test the validity of organised/disorganised distinction
M- research from 100 murders by 100 serial killers in the USA each case was assessed for the 39 characteristics. Smallest space analysis was used to test for the co-occurrence of 39 variables across the 100 cases
R- a set of organised characteristics were found in most serial killers eg body hidden in an isolated spot. Disorganised characteristics were much rarer & did not occur often enough to be considered as a type
C- no clear distinction between org. & disorg. & being organised is. A characteristic of serial killers as a whole

56
Q

What did Alison et al. (2002) review??

A

Processes involved in offender profiling

57
Q

What did Alison note?

A

There are 2 key assumptions

  1. Consistency in offenders behaviour at different offences
  2. Aspects of the offenders behaviour at the scene of the crime will be similar to their everyday/normal behaviour
58
Q

What did Alison conclude?

A

The first assumption is supported & the other is not.

59
Q

What is the Person X Situation effect?

A

The interactions between the person & the situation will lead a person to behave differently in different situations.

60
Q

What did Alison suggest about current profiling methods?

A

They rely on outdated understanding of personality and should be used with extreme caution - that technique has predictive validity

61
Q

What is a geographical approach according to Rossmo (1997)

A

Profiling which involves generalising from the locations of linked crime scenes to the likely home or operational base of the offender.

62
Q

What is the basic assumption of geographical profiling?

A

Offenders prefer to operate in the areas they know well either close to home or somewhere they visit regularly.

63
Q

What did Canter & Gregory (1994) discover about criminals crime range?

A

Many offenders have a crime range of as little as 2 miles.

64
Q

What 2 types of offenders did Canter & Gregory come up with?

A

Marauders - commit crimes in their neighbourhood

Commuters - travel to commit their crimes

65
Q

How did investigators determine where Sutcliffe (The Yorkshire Ripper) live?

A

Kind (2008) the analysis of the locations of the case identified a centre of gravity which enabled inferences about Sutcliffe’s base and occupation.

66
Q

What did Canter & Youngs (2008) explain?

A

Geographical profiling is built in accepted psychological theory about how people represent or conceptualise information.

67
Q

What did Barlett propose in 1932?

A

Information stored in mental schemas are organised units of knowledge

68
Q

What is a schema?

A

A mental map of organised set of information about spatial information

69
Q

What did Canter suggest?

A

The location of crime scenes reflect the offender’s mental map & their experience of their environment

70
Q

What can the location of a crime be used for?

A

To infer where an offender is based, their interests employment & relationships

71
Q

What did Lundrigan & Canter argue in 2001?

A

All criminal spatial decision making is influenced by social cognitive & economic factors

72
Q

List some relevant factors Lundrigan & Canter argued?

A

Age Marital and JOb status intelligence motive method of transport

73
Q

Outline the John Duffy case by Canter 1994.

A

1) Railway Rapist - 1982-1986 24 sexual assaults & murdered occurred in London.
2) Police created a profile of the likely offender
3) Geographical information along with witnesses led to the arrest of John Duffy November 1986

74
Q

What did the police find about Duffy’s profile?

A

It was accurate he lived in Kilburn,
Separated from his wife whom he had been violent towards
Had a job as a carpenter on the railways

75
Q

Outline Lundrigan & Canter 2001 study

A

A - Spatial behaviour of 120 serial murders in USA
M- Information from solved murder cases was obtained & analysed. Distance between crime scene, home & location of body disposed. Statistical method of smallest space analysis was used to determine patterns of disposal
R- 3 key findings
1) Offender’s home was geographically central in the pattern
2) Location of disposal site tended to be in a different location to the previous disposal site
3) Different disposal sites were common in killers who travelled less than 10km
C- Spatial information about body disposal sites may be useful in locating an offender’s base

76
Q

E - what is a strength of geographical profiling?

A

Founded on psychological theory about how information is represented

77
Q

E - why is geographical profiling useful?

A

It can be used for all types of crime not just violent offences

78
Q

E- What did Goodwill & Alison find in 2006?

A

Analysis of house burglaries and found geographical info was more useful than time of the offence, crime scene information & characteristics of dwelling for linking cases which had been committed by a single burglar.

79
Q

What is a limitation of geographical profiling?

A

The location of a crime is not enough to enable a based to be inferred it must be combined with psychological data

80
Q

What did Pinizzotto 1984 find out about the effectiveness of offender profiling?

A

15/192 cases where offender profiling was used was solved.

Offender profiling only contributed to identifying suspects

81
Q

What did Bartol 1996 find out about the effectiveness of offender profiling?

A

Surveyed 152 police psychologists & found that 70% were unsure about the validity & usefulness of profiling

82
Q

What did Alison et al 2003 find out about the effectiveness of offender profiling?

A

Ambiguous statements presented as a guise in offender profiles was accepted as accurate descriptions even when the profile included contrary statements

83
Q

Outline Pinizzotto & Finkel’s study in 1990

A

A- Evaluate the effectiveness of offender profiling
M- 5groups were compared on their ability to construct profiles of real (solved) cases. They were given info. about the crime scene method & victim & asked to describe the likely offender. All participants worked in the field & were highly trained experienced detectives FBI officers etc. Profiles were compared with actual details & assessed for accuracy. Cognitive strategies were also assessed
R- Trained experts provided better profile sof sex offenders but were not significantly better at the murder cases than other groups. No differences in the cognitive strategies used.
C- Profiling training appears to be of some use

84
Q

Outline the five key principles of the investigative approach suggested by Canter

A 
Interpersonal Coherence 
Significance of time and place 
Criminal Characteristics 
Criminal Career
Forensic awareness
85
Q

What is the physiological explanation of offending?

A

There is a criminal physique or make up associated with criminals creating a criminal type

86
Q

What was atavistic form?

A

Criminal type - narrow brow, strong jaw high cheekbones, extra limbs nipples large dark skin

87
Q

Who proposed the Atavistic form of criminal?

A

Lombroso

88
Q

How did Lombroso create this theory?

A

Sampled the proportions of 383 dead criminals heads & 3839 living ones

89
Q

What is a limitation of Lombroso’s methodology?

A

He did not compare non criminals with criminals

90
Q

What could Lombroso’s sample included?

A

People with learning difficulties

91
Q

What did Lombroso’s research include?

A

Racial undertones - even today similar views Rushton & Jenesen 2005 argues that there are higher criminal amongst Afro-Caribbean people due to genetics & intelligence

92
Q

What is a limitation of Lombroso’s theory?

A

NO cause & effect facial features do not cause criminality - may lead to self fulfilling prophecy

93
Q

What did Sheldon suggest in 1949?

A

Scientific explanation for aggression & criminal behaviour based on body type

94
Q

What is an endomorph?

A

Soft fat & rounded - social relaxed

95
Q

What is an ectomorph?

A

Skinny & fragile - shy introverted characters

96
Q

What is a mesomorph?

A

Aggressive & adventurous - criminal type

97
Q

Outline Sheldon’s research in 1949

A

A- Investigate link between criminality & body type
M- Analysed 200 photos of delinquents & non delinquents (students) rated them 1-7 not mesomorphic at all to mesomorphic
R- Avg. rating of delinquents was 4.6 compared to 3.8 for the control group
C- Delinquency is associated with mesomorphic body type

98
Q

What did Cortes & Gatti argue?

A

Sheldon’s classification was unreliable

99
Q

What did Sutherland (1951) criticise?

A

Sheldon’s selection of delinquents using his own definition rather than the legal definition

100
Q

What did Sutherland find when he re-analysed Sheldon’s data?

A

The link between delinquency & mesomorphic body type is no longer present

101
Q

What are the other reasons for antisocial behaviour & muscular build?

A

Muscular built individuals learn to get what they want from aggression from a young age
Muscular body is more attractive to gang members

102
Q

What did the BCS suggest about mesomorphic body type?

A

Not true - BCS found that most criminals were smaller than the average person

103
Q

What did Blackburn suggest in 1993?

A

High testosterone levels may affect body shape & aggression

104
Q

Outline the biological explanation of criminal behaviour

A

All criminal behaviour has a genetic basis

105
Q

What does genetic transmission suggest about offending behaviour

A

Use of twins MZ and DZ twins & concordance rates

106
Q

Outline Lange study in 1929

A

77% concordance in MZ 12% in DZ criminality

107
Q

Outline Christiansen 1977 criminality twin study

A

35% MZ and 12% DZ

108
Q

Why are adoption studies important?

A

Compare adoptive children & their parents & biological parents

109
Q

Outline Grove et al 1990 study

A

A- criminal behaviour in separated pairs of MZ twins
M- 31 sets interviewed individually - behaviour assessed at 43 years old interviewers were blind to the purpose
R- Drug score antisocial scores significant heritability. APD - 29% concordance rates
C- traits had a genetic component

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